Pak mulls removing import duy on Indian Tea Essay

Free trade takes place when there are no barriers and no intrusions to trade put by the authority(government and trade organisations). Free trade allows goods and services to flow freely freely from one country to another. The opposite to free trade is Protectionism. There are many protectionism that the government of a particular country can impose on trade. Main types of protectionism: * Tariffs * Subsidies * Quotas * Embargoes The governement of Pakistan has imposed a trade barrier on the import of Tea from India. India tea is under a 10 percent import duty. Some possible reasons for the imposition of Import duty on Tea are given below. * To prevent over specialisation * To raise government revenue * To remove balance of payment deficits Given below is a graph that shows the effect of imposing import duty on the import of Tea. Due to the imposition of import duty the prices for Tea rises from ‘P-world’ to ‘P- import duty’ because of which the Supply curve shifts from ‘S-world’ to ‘S- world+ import duty’ . Therefore there is an overall consumer loss. Areas ‘a’,’b’,’c’ and ‘d’ shows the consumer loss. Area ‘a’ shows the producers gain. Area ‘b’ shows green loss. It is said to be a ‘Green Loss’ because there is inefficiency that is creeping in this area as inefficient domestic producers are now producing this area at a higher price. Area ‘c’ shows the government revenue due the import duty. Area ‘d’ shows the net loss. ‘d’ is not being produced or demanded due to the rise in prices, this shows the net loss towards the consumer. Tea is an ‘important drink in every Pakistani house’ and Pakistan is the second largest importer of Tea. Therefore the demand curve for Tea in Pakistan is very inelastic. The smuggled tea is sold at a low cost but due to the Inelastic demand for Tea, The change in the price of tea should have a realively low change in the demand. However, the article states that Pakistan imports 140 million kg and 20 million kg is smuggled. This shows that 12.5 % of tea is smuggled, which is a very high rate. This indirectly shows that Tea inspite of being very inelastic in demand, a change in price will have a big effect on the demand. Area ‘d’ in the above graph is consumer loss in Trade between India and Pakistan. However, this area is being demanded and supplied throught smuggling and illegal trade. Therefore, Area ‘d’ can also be observed as the government loss of revenue. India and Kenya are the two main countrys supplying Pakistan with tea. Due to the drought in Kenya the prices have increased tremendously. This puts Pakistan in a very infavourable situation. ‘S-world’ takes into account the imported supply of Tea from India and Kenya. Due to the import duty the price shifts from ‘P world’ to ‘P- import duty’ and the supply shifts from ‘S- world’ to ‘S- world+ import duty’. Again due to the drougth the price shifts from ‘P- import duty’ to ‘P1’ and the supply shifts from ‘S- world+ import duty’ to ‘S- world 2’. Due to the very high prices people will stop consuming Tea and move to other alternatives like coffee. Also smuggling of Tea will increase tremendously. The net effect will have a tremedous loss of revenue for the government.

Bird in the House

REVISED Vanessa: Distressed Female In Margaret Laurence’s A Bird in the House By: Adeline Hartono #20336566 For: Professor Vardon Date: Monday November 14th, 2011 In Margaret Laurence’s A Bird in the House, the female characters in the story are helpless and distressed. Each character struggles to reach their own personal freedoms and is constantly battling through the ups and downs of life. This issue brings about the essence of entrapment, which is apparent in the collection.It can be further seen in regards to the female and main character, Vanessa Macleod. A Bird in the House tells a story about the life of Vanessa Macleod, the protagonist, and the rocky journey she endures throughout the process of growing up. Life is never easy for Vanessa, for she faces many challenges and tragedies throughout her childhood. In the collection, Vanessa possesses a unique quality in that she is able to find ways to deal and cope with the harsh events taking place in her life.One wa y in which she illustrates this is through her many writings of creative stories. When she wrote and developed ideas, Vanessa escapes any feelings of entrapment and helplessness; however, one of the hardest things Vanessa has to endure is the numerous losses of her loved ones: firstly, the passing of her beloved Grandmother Connor, whom she adored and loved very much, and shortly, in months after her death, the passing of her father, Ewen Macleod. Out of the two, the greatest lost in which Vanessa continues to struggle through is her father’s death.Throughout her childhood, she has always wanted to be closer with her father, but with the profession in which he holds, a doctor, it is difficult for the both of them to ever have any time to spend together. She not only believes that her father is the best doctor there is in Manawaka, but also the best doctor in the whole of Manitoba. With this being said, her father frequently travels out of town for work. During one winter in M anawaka, Vanessa’s father became very ill and had developed pneumonia.Almost immediately, in days after, he unfortunately passed away due to being unable to recover from the illness. In the days following her father’s death, Vanessa continues to fight back feelings of regret that she could have somehow been closer to her father and conversed with him more, â€Å"I took the letter and picture outside and burned them. That was all I could do for him. Now that we might have talked together, it was many years too late. Perhaps it would not have been possible anyway.I did not know† (Laurence 107) Hence, Vanessa never got the closure she has wanted with her father and this prevents her from fully reaching happiness. Although Vanessa has suffered the tremendous loss of her father, the pain and struggle of her life did not end there. She continues to endure obstacles while growing up, as she faces the dominance of her Grandfather Connor. Throughout the novel, Grandfathe r Connor is shown as someone of a high power who wanted things to go his way.He has a strong character and will, which gives him authority and as a result, overpowering almost all the members in Vanessa’s family. In one of Vanessa’s first creative stories, she realizes that her writing bears no relation to the life around her, but instead resembles her Grandfather Connor. She realizes that her Pillars of the Nation about pioneer life may well incorporate her Grandfather Connor, who is a real pioneer. She is troubled by the connection of the hateful old man she feared and fought with being apart of her creative writing so much so that she decides to set it aside.Only then does she see how similar she is to Grandfather Connor and how she will never be free of his control, â€Å"I had not thought it would hurt me to see it in other hands, but it did. I wanted to tell them to trim their hedges, to repaint the window frames, to pay heed to repairs. I had feared and fought the old man, yet he proclaimed himself in my veins† (Laurence 191) Thus, Vanessa continues to be trapped in the dominance of her Grandfather, and continually feels distressed and helpless.Ultimately, the theme of entrapment is evident in the book. One of the obvious ways in which readers see this idea clearly is in the character of Vanessa Macleod, the protagonist. The death of her father and the dominance of her Grandfather Connor prevent Vanessa from fully reaching happiness. As a result, she often struggles with feelings of regret and sorrow. All in all, the female characters in the book can be seen as distressed and helpless, for Vanessa was a perfect example of this.

Does Tv Have Negative Effect On Society

TV corrupts our children. Jerome Singer once said, â€Å"If you came and saw a strange man teaching your kids to punch each other, or trying to sell them all kind of products, you’d kick him right out of the house, but here you are; you come in and the TV is on, and you don’t think twice about it. † He is correct; entertainment television is an especially bad influence on children for many reasons, including not enough control on violence.These things are quite literally ruining America by corrupting our next generation’s leaders, our children. This year, more American children will die from a fired gun than from children who will die of asthma, pneumonia, influenza, cancer, and AIDS combined. What does this have to do with TV? Multiple studies have come to the conclusion that youth who are avid TV watchers become aggressive adults.A study from the University of Michigan showed that children who watched violent TV were more inclined to show violent tendenc ies as adults. According to that study, â€Å"†¦men who were high TV-violence viewers as children were significantly more likely to have pushed, grabbed or shoved their spouses, to have responded to an insult by shoving a person, to have been convicted of a crime and to have committed a moving traffic violation. Such men, for example, had been convicted of crimes at over three times the rate of other men.†It also stated that, â€Å"Women who were high TV-violence viewers as children were more likely to have thrown something at their spouses, to have responded to someone who made them mad by shoving, punching, beating or choking the person, to have committed some type of criminal act, and to have committed a moving traffic violation. Such women, for example, reported having punched, beaten or choked another adult at over four times the rate of other women. † The study also reported that the said violence was glorified by being black and white.The â€Å"good guysâ €  were okay to shoot the â€Å"bad guys,† resulting in a happy ending. This leads to children trying to be the good guys, by resulting in violence instead of working or talking the problem out. Another problem is that the â€Å"bad guys† have little to no back-story, with usually nothing more than a nickname to identify them with. Most of these problems base off the fact that children under 8 cannot tell the difference between fantasy and reality.Which covers another topic not censored enough. In conclusion, television is a sinister vehicle for bad habits of all sorts. How can you prevent this from happening to you and your families? The answer is simple: limit TV time to two hours a day. One might be reluctant to do so, but look what the old telly can and will do to America. As Nicholas Johnson said, â€Å"All television is educational television. The question is: what is it teaching? † .

ToolsCorp Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

ToolsCorp Corporation - Essay Example This they do through newspapers by having a special edition on selected days of the week. Though the company has some good foundation in places like Canada not to mention the United States, they have a plan to broaden operations to wider markets. Thus, they seek to have a vibrant business plan that would have the role the program on a large scale. SWOT Analysis: Strengths ToolsCorp Corporation is a well-recognized company especially in Tennessee and almost 80% percent of the people are well aware of the company. Furthermore, a good number of those living in the United States know the company. In this sense, the company has got a well-structured base because of the majority of the people who know about the company. Many people who deal with a variety of tools have a liking for the company tools because the company stocks everything needed by the customers. In this respect, the customers have a reliable source where they get the products. This makes the company on the brink of stepping into the next level. ToolsCorp Corporation is a company that is known by the quality of the products it produces and also, has a loyalty that is very high and competitive. The company has got a distribution network that is organized and structured. Everywhere in Tennessee, the company has got connections in terms of outlets. These outlets become the major link points in reaching out to the rest of the places (Fine, 2009). This makes the company to be at an advantage based on the ability to reach to many customers. ToolsCorp Corporation also sells the products at wholesale and retail. The customers are able to get the products at a relatively lower rate. This makes it possible for the retailers and the wholesalers to buy in bulk from the company because of the lower rates. The products are able to serve the interest of almost all the people who seek to have the products. Free consultancy is given to anyone who buys from the company. ToolsCorp Corporation also has an online operating system where people can access information on the tools that are produced by the company. The company also has innovative methods of producing products based on the needs and expectations of the consumer. The company would seek to build more on the quality of the products for the sake of expansion to other markets. The company builds the tools with the environment in mind so the tools do not degrade the environment. The market prices are fair compared to other companies. These strengths are key in having the company go full scale into conquering other markets (Rath, 2007). The company also uses mainstream media to advertise the company products. These include newspapers, television, magazines and stereo. Weaknesses ToolsCorp Corporation in different instances has faced stiff competition from competitors. This has sometimes made the company sales to decline. This has made the company to suffer losses in unprecedented rate. The company also suffers from poor marketing methods. Even t hough the company tries a lot of advertisements, they fall short in meeting the high standards of advertisements. This has been a major problem as many of the company’s competitors use this loophole to win other customers. The production tools used by the company sometimes take time before they are delivered. This slows down production. It is not possible for the company to sometimes reach out to other

Business argument and ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Business argument and ethics - Essay Example Historically in the United States, government has been wary of large corporations who appear to accumulate monopolistic powers where they control both the supply of a particular commodity as well as its price. The belief is that monopolies constrain competition and that prices are kept at an artificially high level as a result. In some instances, government has gone so far as to order these huge corporations to be spilt into smaller companies. This occurred early on with the railroads and more recently with the Bell system of telephone companies. The latest industry that finds itself in the sights of government regulators is the information technology sector in general and the Microsoft Corporation in particular. This essay examines Microsoft’s business practices and argues that the company has an unfair market advantage in violation of federal anti-trust laws. Microsoft Corporation is an international computer technology company that produces hardware and software products for computer-related devices worldwide. The company is a leader in technological innovation and excellence and for years has dominated the market for computer operating systems software. Critics of Microsoft’s business practices argue that its monopoly over essential software technologies places its competitors at an unfair disadvantage. This is particularly the case for Microsoft’s operating system software, Windows. The majority of computers sold worldwide with the exception of Apple, come with Microsoft Windows operating system installed. Microsoft also provides a number of application software programs that are compatible only with Windows. Microsoft is also the major player in the rapidly expanding and lucrative Internet market, although Google has also certainly become a legitimate competitor in the Internet environment as well. Internet Explorer was the browser of choice for several

I'll attach it Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

I'll attach it - Essay Example For example, I searched for database administrator jobs in Chicago and I was able to get the necessary information needed. From the websites, I was able to get a few results in various companies. The job descriptions on the two sites appear to bear striking similarities, such as- the breakdown of the duties of the potential data administrator, the amount of experience that he/she is supposed to possess and educational qualifications. Additionally, the sites provided a platform for either saving the job description for future use or reference, and a link for applying for the job in case one wanted to. Most of the job descriptions for the database administrator job, did not quote the salary offered for the jobs. However, dice.com is more suited for job seekers who are in the IT industry and offers more information on job opportunities in that sector. On the other hand, monster.com offers a wider search network for job vacancies in all sectors. One factor that I found beneficial with wwww.monster.com, is its relatively easy application procedure when compared to dice.com. Even though monster.com has an easier application process, I found dice.com to be the better site because it offers more detailed information and provides crucial career advice. In summary even though both sites offer similar job descriptions, I found dice.com to be the better option in terms of the depth of the job listings, user friendly interface and a faster processing

Policy and procedure Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Policy and procedure Development - Essay Example The following policy and procedure provides a guide for the management of fatigue for cancer patients. Relaxing body massage is a proven non-pharmacological fatigue management therapy for cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy treatment. Cancer patients develop fatigue due to the inadequate number of red blood cells to circulate oxygen to body muscles. Accumulation of carbon dioxide in the body cells result in chronic body fatigue for cancer patients (Ahlberg, 2003). The drugs administration lack the complete relaxation effect for most cancer patients. Current studies have downplayed the use of drugs to control chemotherapy fatigue. More ever, traditional relaxation methods such as resting and escaping are time-consuming. Massage is cost-effective and time-saving. While other relief methods such as drugs may have cost implications, massage is cheap and has long-standing effects. Studies conducted at the University of Miami suggests that massage helps reduce fatigue. Smooth, soft caresses over the affected area trigger the mind to produce Dopamine, a chemical that induces a feeling of well-being. The research also indicated that massage causes an increase in the white blood cells that boost immunity. The cancer foundation called them the natural killer cells and appeared on the first and last days of the massage. Massages offer a significant fatigue reduction to cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy as compared to drugs. Specialized massage combined with other non-pharmacological practices such as physical exercise have proved effective in the control of body fatigue. Long usage of drugs to stimulate the body overworks the body cells and is detrimental more so to patients at the chronic cancer stages. Specialized cancer nurses and trained masseuse help determine the patient’s knowledge on non-pharmacological fatigue management. The cancer patient’s rights and family diversity will be

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 26

Report - Essay Example However, in the recent past, the sales and fortunes of the Ace manufacturing company has been on the low side. In terms of ranking and order or merit, Ace manufacturing company lost its prestigious position and dropped to the third position. In the conventional sense and ordinary world, the drop would inspire curiosity and the urge to get to know what might have happened wrong to occasion the sudden drop (Sand, Tsitouras, Dimitrakopoulos & Chatzigiannakis, 2014). Thus, as a prospective researcher and an external consultant, it becomes an issue of interest to try to gauge what might have happened wrongly in the course of time and in theli8ne of operations of the company. Thus, this report would present a synopsis and a possible chronology of what might have happened to cause Ace manufacturing company to drop from its prime position as a leading distributor and manufacturer of the leading electronic wares in the country (Papasolomou, Thrassou, Vrontis & Sabova, 2014). Accordingly, it is important to note and mention that this report was drafted and considered after the executives of Ace manufacturing company sought to decipher and realize the root cause of the problem. The problem or the issue being the reason as to why the Ace manufacturing company had recorded a dip into the number of sales and subsequent revenues or proceeds which it would have otherwise recorded or realized under different circumstances and situation. In principle, this logic and argument points to the direction that this is a aim of being self-critical on the part of the management of the Ace manufacturing company in order to try to understand and contextualize the reason as to why their sales and revenues must have dipped in the recent past (Lee, 2014). Therefore, it was imperative on their part to invoke our services as a central research institute to

Modern Furniture Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Modern Furniture Evaluation - Essay Example Preferred stock is a class of ownership in a corporation that has a higher claim on the assets and earnings than the common stock. Preferred stock generally has a dividend that must be paid out before the dividends to common stockholders and the shares usually do not have voting rights. Each company can work out the details pertaining to the issue of preferred stocks. However preferred stock can be considered as a financial instrument that possesses the characteristics of both debt (with fixed dividend) and equity (potential appreciation). (Investopedia) A convertible debt or security is a bond or a share of preferred stock that can be converted at the option of the holder into common stock of the same corporation. The investor is provided with a fixed return from a bond or with a specified dividend from the preferred stock. In addition the investor has an option to covert it to common stock. As a result the company is able to sell a convertible security at a lower yield than it would have to pay on a straight bond or preferred stock issue. This is an advantage for issuing convertible securities. (James C.Van Horne) A Warrant is an option to purchase a specified number of shares of common stock at a stated price. When the holder of a warrant exercises his option he surrenders the warrants. Warrants are often employed as 'sweeteners' to a public issue of bonds or debt that is privately placed. As a result the company should be able to obtain a lower rate of interest than it would otherwise. For companies that are marginal credit risks the use of warrants may make the difference between being able and not being able to raise funds through a debt issue. Occasionally warrants are directly sold to investors directly against cash. On other occasions they are used in founding of the company issued as compensation to underwriters and venture capitalists. Mostly warrants are issued in connection with a debt issue often a private placement. (James C.Van Horne) A primary financial instrument evidences a direct claim against some other party. These instruments often are traded in the spot market with prices set by the usual forces of demand and supply. In contrast a derivative security derives its value from an underlying primary security. One of the examples for the underlying security for derivatives is the stock option. Movements in the price of the underlying asset, the stock in this case drive the value of the derivative instrument, the option. Derivatives may take the form of simple put and call options on stocks. These options were traded in relatively illiquid over the counter markets. However with the tremendous financial innovations occurred in the last two decades the role of derivative securities in the financial markets have increased manifold touching new heights. (James C. Van Horne) Modern Furniture Company Total Number of shares outstanding: 3,000,000 Cash Dividend Proposed: $ 1.60 per share Total Earnings of the firm $ 12,000,000 Earnings per share $ 4.00 Market Value of the Share $ 88.00 P/E Ratio P/E Ratio is given Market Value per Share Earnings per Share 88.00 4.00 = 22 Dividend Yield and Dividend Payout Ratio Dividend Yield is given by Annual Dividends per

Creativity and Innovation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Creativity and Innovation - Essay Example erall temperatures that are found on earth, which further results to greenhouse effects that are caused by the heightened levels of carbon dioxide among other pollutants. According to Weart (2003), global warming has been accelerating since 2005, and is further expected to increase if the environment is not taken care as would be expected particularly if there is no reduction of emission from burning fossils fuels such as coal and oil. Additionally, the rise in average have been confirmed as having far reaching effects on the general climate pattern across the world, and to human beings as well. As such, global warming has dire consequences on health, wildlife, weather patterns and glaciers and sea levels. Firstly, global warming has continuously led to high temperatures which translate to increased droughts and wildfires, heavier rainfall and numerous hurricanes across the world, and especially in Europe and Asia. According to Houghton (2008), the frequent occurrence of hurricanes that are more powerful and dangerous are as a result of warmer waters in the ocean that pumps energy into tropical storms that are potentially destructive, a situation that make easier to experience more complicated hurricanes in future due to flooding and soil erosion. Moreover, global warming has increased drought and wildfire due to greater evaporation that has been witnessed during summer, a situation that directly or indirectly leads to wildfires. Scholars associated to climate change and weather patterns have argued that when temperatures are warm they are likely to lead to heavier rainfall. Secondly, global warming has directly led to health consequences. Basically, the presence of hotter weather facilitates deadly mosquitoes to travelling for greater distance and the availability of carbon dioxide in the air makes a conducive environment for the growth of airborne diseases such as asthma and allergies. Additionally, the presence of more frequent and serious heat waves

Safeways Human resources management Essay Example for Free

Safeways Human resources management Essay Introduction I will be looking at the way Safeways Human resources management is run, Safeway is one of the leading grocery retailers in the UK with annual sales of around à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9 billion, 90,000 employees and nearly 480 stores nationwide. Their stores attract around 8 million shoppers every week. Originally they were a US owned company called Safeway Food Stores Ltd. Their first UK store was opened in Bedford in 1962. Over the next two decades the companys portfolio of stores rose to 133, establishing it as a serious player in the booming UK food retailing market. This success reflects the radical changes they have made in the way they do business and their strategy is based on four key objectives which is focus on product and price, best at fresh, best at availability and best at customer service Argyll was formed in 1977 by James Gulliver and named after his Scottish birthplace, the company grew rapidly through acquisition, and during the 80s Argyll focused its retailing operation on the Presto brand while also operating a range of other food and drinks businesses. By 1987, Argyll had the necessary financial muscle to make a bid for the Safeway name and estate. In February 1987 Argyll bought the UK arm of Safeway for à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½681m and with it came a distribution network and the Safeway name, a programme was launched to integrate the best systems and processes from each company and convert many of the larger Presto stores to the Safeway fascia. As its food retailing operations became more important, Argyll began to sell its non-core businesses and invested in a massive store opening programme. In 1996 the company name was changed to Safeway plc and all stores reframed under the Safeway identity. Their human resources support management in recruitment, induction and training. HR policies on terms and conditions of pay and benefits, performance management, training and career development apply to all Safeway people. It believes that by building sustainable advantage over our competitors it can only be done through Safeway people. We are creating a business culture in which our people are passionate about our products, our stores and everything we do. If their employees have an unbreakable will to compete and have the skills, knowledge and resources to do their best every day. The Human Resources operation within Safeway affects all departments and impacts on all members of staff. Human Resources Managers are responsible for attracting, developing and retaining people who are great assets to the stores. They provide expert advice on a range of employee issues and work to help people achieve their full potential. Their HR strategy has been broadened to ensure they prepare both their business and people for the future and will continue to develop managers in the key areas needed to support this phase, e.g. change. Leadership will be a requisite skill to support their people and managers will receive ongoing development in this area. Safeways entire Supply and HR Divisions recently became Investors in People accredited. In the case of the Supply Division this achievement was unique as they employ both permanent employees and contractors at third party depots. Human Resources Planning The function of human resources within a business is considered to be one of very important elements in running private and public enterprises besides the financial capital. It envisages manpower planning which focus on the various ways of attracting sufficient candidates with the right qualifications. Broadly speaking, the role of human resources include among others manpower planning, recruitment and selection, training and development and performance of management so that a business can have the best people for jobs who are able to perform their respective tasks to the highest level possible. Other responsibilities also include designing jobs that are interesting, keeping within the law on issues such as health safety, equal opportunities, sex race discrimination and termination of employment. Another responsibility also include dealing with trade unions, staff association, disputes, industrial tribunals and other legal actions, also ensuring that organisational structures and procedures allow employees to express their views, ideas, complaints and worries. If a business is expected to be effective and efficient it needs to manage its employees or human resources well. If workers are well managed they will be happier, better motivated, more responsive and more productive. Badly managed employees are more likely to be less enthusiastic, less willing to show initiative and likely to miss work. and finally less productive. The external labour market is also considered to be a very important factor when dealing with human resources. It is made up of potential employees whether they are locally, regionally or nationally that may have the skills and experience required for a particular business. Manpower planning should cover the analysis of both internal staffing resources, and the monitoring of the availability of labour from external resources. If a business fails to analyse the pool of recruits within the working population both local national then it runs the risk of not being able to satisfy any additional manpower requirements from external sources. There are many different factors that affect the size and nature of the labour market. Labour Market The Labour market is defined as the combination of labour demand and labour supply. Labour demand refers to the total number of workers or even working hours required by employers and is usually measured by the number of jobs plus vacancies. Labour supply refers to the total numbers of hours that labour is willing and able to supply at a given wage rate. It can also be defined as the number or workers willing and able to work in a given occupation or industry for a given wage. National Labour Market A business must consider its ability to meet its manpower requirements so that it can operates efficiently and at the same obtain profit or at least cover its running costs in the short run. Overall a national labour market is influenced by the following factors: * Trends in the size of the working population. * Competition for labour within businesses industry. * Overall level of economic activity. * Education and training opportunities. * The effect of government legislation. A national external source also has to be considered, these include national policies, demographics trends and developments which can affect the ability of a business to recruit certain types of labour. Similarly all these factors can have an implication of salary levels and the conditions of employment. We can easily say that manpower planning must also take into account the following factors: * Economic trends which will affect the demands for different types of labour e.g. in todays environment there is a greater demand for people with technology skills. * National demographic trends may have particular implications for the growth of the working population. * Education and training trends which change the structure and emphasis of university courses and the provision of technical and vocational education in schools and colleges. * New legislation including government policies and European Union directives on wage and salary negotiations, the role of staff associations and trade unions, equal pay, sex discrimination, employment protection, working time and industrial relations. Local Labour Market Business needs to be aware of the labour supply in the location they are operating, they need to know about future and current supply trends. In order for a business to gain a clear understanding of the local supply conditions they must have access to such statistics. Other information can be obtained by local employment offices and job centres which have details of unemployment figures for their particular area, local employers also want information on local wage rates and income levels in order for them to pitch an appropriate wage level to recruit or attract the right sort of employees. The types of information a business needs to know about local employment trends are the following: * Local employment gives an indication of the general availability of labour and state how easy or difficult it will be to recruit. * Local Skills shortage, there are job roles that go into decline because the skills required for certain jobs are becoming redundant. * Competition for employees, it is in a business best interest to know whether its competitors are expanding. * Availability of labour. Local external sources have to be looked over when assessing future manpower requirements and how it can be satisfied by local labour markets and manpower planning should take into account the following: * Developments in the local transport system that determine the effective catchments for labour area. * Demographic trends paying particular attention on the overall size and age structure of the local working population, e.g. if there a lot of graduates in the area they might consider recruiting them. * Housing and the availability of different types of accommodation. * Environmental developments that influence the attractiveness of the area as a place in which to live, more homes and people. * The local effect of any changes in the governments regional and urban development policies, e.g. if a new retail park opens, there will be more jobs. * Unemployment rates and the availability of workers with particular skills, qualifications and experience for example higher labour market available for work higher demand for certain jobs then wages get higher. * The availability of part time and casual labour, e.g. students and mothers. * The quality of local education and training providers, people will be more skilled which means higher wages. * Local competition for labour and its impact on pay rates and fringe benefits e.g. one company might look at what benefits another company offers. Manpower planning and internal staffing resources The purpose of manpower planning within different organisations will vary and it is important to identify this purpose i.e. why your organisation needs to do manpower planning. Once the purpose is clear, then it is important to develop a consistent approach to meet these needs. Manpower Planning is the process by which an organisation determines its human resource management needs and issues, and develops and implements plans to address them, it also gives a clear picture of the supply of labour available to a business internally for example skills, attributes and the potential of the current employees. At this level the manpower planning function deals with understanding the staffing requirements necessary to implement the organisations overall plans. The focus here is on the wider implications of the organisations manpower plans in terms of, for example, skill mix and development programme requirements, as they affect the organisation as a whole. Manpower planning at an operational level deals with specific programmes defined as necessary by management to meet their objectives. Research and experience shows that workforce planning fails when it is applied in a manner which is inconsistent with the needs of the organisation. If it is viewed as too complicated, lacking serious senior management support or focused on issues which are not important to the organisations success, it may be perceived as just another personnel procedure. However, when it involves managers in meaningful and significant ways, when it provides useful information and stimulates effective decision making and when it addresses important issues before they become expensive problems, then workforce planning is seen as a valuable process of management. This should be based on a manpower inventory consisting of computerised personnel records on each employee which cover the following: * Age, gender and martial status. * Date employment commenced, the first day of their work. * How the employee first heard of the vacancy with the business, whether it was recommended. * Job title. * Department, section and job location. * Employment status (hourly, full-time, part time, shift). * Previous job titles within the organisation, whether they were once a checkout assistant and now a manager, we know that skills are there. * Previous work experience with other employees. * Performance and attainment, their ability. * Qualifications. * Training and development, what type of training they have and if they need more strengths. * Potential for transfer or promotion. Information from manpower planning can be analysed to help determine the resources that an organisation possess, and also identify important trends that may have implications for its future labour requirements. This plan should include records of employees that are no longer within the business and the reasons why these employees left for example if it was the companys fault or employee personal reasons. It gives an opportunity for measuring and analysing: Labour Turnover Labour turnover occurs when workers leave an organisation and need to be replaced by new recruits. The main reasons that workers leave are: à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Resignation (both voluntary and due to incapacity pregnancy, ill-health, etc) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Dismissal (including redundancy). à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Retirement. It is calculated in percentage terms using the following formula: Labour turnover = number of employees leaving over specific period x 100 Average number of people employed A labour turnover ratio of 25% is generally considered acceptable, however when the rate reaches 30% or more, an organisation will need to pay attention to this particular area. High labour turnover can be expensive, although the actual costs are difficult to estimate. To get some indication, organisations can start by adding up the most obvious expenses those of advertising, recruitment and training, together with the cost of associated management and supervisory time. The annual total could well convince the organisation that time and effort spent reducing labour turnover is cost-effective. Increased expenditure on recruitment and training represents only a small proportion of the total cost of labour turnover. Much greater costs may be incurred through: * Poor recruitment with the wrong people being selected for the job, perhaps interviewer did not select the right person. * Low levels of motivation within a department. * Employee dissatisfaction with unfavourable wage rates or working conditions maybe not getting enough for their use and may introduce fringe benefits to keep their employees. For example Safeway offer a competitive salary and an employee can look forward to a range of benefits including: * Generous holiday entitlement. * Contributory pension scheme. * Staff discount card. * Subsidized meals and drinks. * Share save scheme to become a Safeway shareholder. * Safeway Lifestyle Voluntary Benefits which are a wide range of discounts on services including mortgages, electrical services, personal travel services and fitness. * Bonus scheme. * Staff uniform. * Premium payments for Sunday working. Safeway employees become eligible for further benefits such as medical cover as their career progresses, and their store social committee organizes different number of activities like theatre trips to Christmas parties. * Failing induction process and employees are not made to feel comfortable. It is also important that Safeway measure the labour turnover rate to warn of potential problems, so that the management can take appropriate action. The replacing of employees can cause a lot of disruption in the efficiency; it can also create costs for recruitment and training. For Safeway to meet its manpower planning it is important that it minimises labour turnover. Labour stability index This outlines stability because it emphasizes the employees that stay within the business rather than those that leave, this is another important ratio that is used and a measure which is more suitable is the labour stability index, as the labour turnover is generally measured. The labour stability index is measured by this formula: Labour stability = number employed with more than 12 months service x 100 Total number of staff employed one year ago The labour stability for Safeway is: 157 x 100 196 Labour stability = 80 The index stability represents stability because it emphasizes those employees that stay rather than leave. The labour stability, which is 80, means that only 20% of workers leave, so this is a very good employment for Safeway. Sickness and accident rates Absences are bad for companies as work is not done, and sickness rate is measured using the following formula: Sickness rate = number of working days lost per year due to illness x 100 Total number of available working days Due to the Health and safety at work act 1974, an organization is required by law to investigate a keep a detailed record of its accident rates, accidents can be caused by factors such as: * Insufficient safety training. * Stress, caused by too much to do. * A lack of safety equipment. * Poor motivation, money related perhaps due to unhappy with their work surroundings. These factors can result in ineffective working practices and reduced efficiency, keeping records allows an organization to protect itself from legal actions and will help identify and deal with causes of accidents before problems occur. Safeway circulate an annual health and safety report to employees in order to illustrate where we are and actions underway to improve our health and safety performance. They are always encouraging employees to consider key health and safety challenges facing Safeway and how they can make a difference: * Protecting members of public and visitors visiting Safeway premises. * Reduction in stock handling injuries to staff. * Motivation and training of staff in health and safety. * Improving the safety of contractors during construction and maintenance operations. Age Structure This information is useful for several reasons, it will help highlight a potential staff shortage that may be caused by a large number of employees all reaching retirement age, mostly students are most willing for jobs. When deciding the allocation of training opportunities a detailed analysis of the age structure of the workforce is needed, for example who is in need of training and you would not give training to pensioners, elderly as they are not in need of it. Succession This analysis identifies any managerial and supervisory posts that face a weak replacement position and for this reason the assessment of employees must be a continuous process, the manpower plan allows plans to be made for the effects of retirement or resignation among supervisory and managerial employees. An organization needs to know if it has the appropriate employees in order to promote and transfer them to the managerial positions. Safeways are committed to the provision of a full outplacement and career-coaching service at all levels. This will be supported by the development of their own internal re-deployment framework. They also plan to further enhance their system provision, enabling automated succession planning and competency modelling, which will support the above. To support improved communication across their Business. In October 2002 the ten year old Human Resources System was replaced by a new, more efficient management information system (People soft). This manages the companys and facilitates our performance management and succession planning processes:- * Recruitment administration. * All personal and job details. * Information about absence, discipline and grievances Recruitment and Selection The ultimate success of a business depends upon the quality and contribution of its workforce, businesses recruit staff for a variety of reasons. Before recruiting it is essential to ensure that there is actually a need to recruit workers. External influences such as technological developments can change job roles within the business creating a need to recruit new people with specific skills. Other reasons why businesses recruit include the following: * The growth of the business When existing jobs are being expanded human resources management simply needs to copy existing practice on a larger scale. In creating new jobs more detailed thought is required particularly if the jobs are quite different from those that already exist within the organisation. * Changing the job roles within the business Due to the rise in information and communication technology, there has been a change in businesses job structures. When developing new jobs requires considerable amount of research, which is often done by examining best practice in businesses or by looking at the development of new jobs in other countries. * Filling vacancies created by resignation, retirement or dismissal In all businesses people move on, they become older they either hand in their notice or are dismissed. So it is necessary for employers to replace their employees. * Internal promotion In any successful business there will be opportunities for internal promotion, this allows an employee something to aim towards in a business rather than looking elsewhere for something better. When one employee is promoted, sometimes they need a replacement. The recruitment process as illustrated is a tried and tested process that aims to reduce the risk of selecting the wrong person. It can be costly in terms of resources devoted to the process and costs associated with recruiting poor performing employees, it is important to select people accurately for interviews. Businesses need to be very clear always about the requirements of the job and about the kind of person they are seeking for. The following ways can be achieved through: * Job descriptions A job description is used as a job indicator for applicants, it is also used by managers to identify their roles and responsibilities within the business. This also can be used by businesses to provide information to be used in making a vacancy advert and for briefing interviews. A job description normally follows a similar pattern of headings: * Title of post, this should give a good indication of what the job is. * Position within business structure, state who the post holder is accountable to and who is accountable to them. * Duties and responsibilities that need to be performed by a job holder and the skills and qualities required. * Responsibilities for assets and materials, the rage of materials and physical assets the job holder will be responsible for. * Person specifications this describes the characteristics and attributes which a person needs to be able to do the job to the required standards. It can also be used to make sure a job advertisement conveys the qualities that prospective candidates should have and check candidates have the right qualities. * Achievements, what education, qualifications and experiences does the applicant need? * Personal attributes they have e.g. works well in teams or on their own. * The amount of experience in the business industry or related areas. * Carefully planning how and when to advertise This process is to attract only those people who fit the companys person specification Advertisements must reach those who have the qualities to fill the vacancy, the business needs to be aware of who there target audience is(manager, supervisor, etc) and also where the advert will be placed(on a notice board, broadsheet paper, local job centre).The presentation of the advert is very important as it gives prospective employees a first impression of the business. A good advertisement needs to contain the following information: * Job title, details about the business and who would I am working for. * Job description, what would I be doing. * Location, where would I be working. * Salary, what financial reward would I get and an indication should always be given. * Qualifications needed for the business must be stated clearly. * Address and contact, so that the applicant can contact the business for further information. * Fringe benefits, additional things an employee will receive other than pay. * Organisational identity, this may be in the form of a logo. Safeway as a Company undertakes a positive and proactive approach to equality and diversity. They recognize the benefits of providing a working environment in which everyone feels valued, respected and able to contribute to the success of the business and also wish to employ a workforce that reflects the diverse society of which they live in and serve. To ensure that all colleagues remain committed to and involved in promoting diversity, it undertakes the following activities:- * Dignity and respect training entitled Appreciating Differences is provided for managers throughout the Company. * Conduct diversity profiling across their workforce and this information is fed back to each of their stores, to ensure that the workforce in each location reflects the profile of their local community. * They advertise vacant positions both within their stores and through the distribution of fliers to local communities. * Use both internal and external posters and recruitment materials targeted at workers of different ages. * They also utilize the Age Positive and 50 Plus websites when advertising positions. * Springboard is used to target school leavers. * They are accredited to use the Positive about Disability symbol on our recruitment literature. * They are committed to interviewing all disabled people who meet the minimum job requirements. * They make any reasonable adjustments required to meet the needs of disabled applicants and colleagues. * We have developed partnerships with around 40 external providers such as Re-employ and the Shaw Trust. In 2002/3 we employed approximately 140 people on supported placements. * Identify the strengths and weaknesses of job application: CSVs and letters of application A CV is a document usually prepared by the job seeker, it is similar to an application form. It supplies an employer with the job seekers details. It must be truthful and positive and should have the following information: * Personal details. * Education. * Qualifications. * Work experience. * Interests. * Ambitions. Letters of application should be written to support a CV, it should have A clear structure, with beginning, middle and an ending. Which should state the following: * The reason applying for the job. * The contribution that can be made to the business. * The developed capabilities through training and education. * The skills and knowledge acquired that will help in the job. * Short listing candidates This process involves looking through the completed applications to narrow the number down to a manageable number, it helps eliminate all the applicants that do not meet the job requirements. * Taking references Most businesses an applicants reference will be considered by the employer before a contract of employment is agreed. It is an opinion usually in writing of a persons character, ability, honesty and reliability. Some employers tend to not even consider the job applicant until they have seen a reference from a college or previous employer. * Job analysis The first stage is to conduct a detailed analysis of the job, which may involve questioning the current job holder at work. It might be obtained through discussions with the job holders manager or supervisor. The job analyst compiles a description of the main responsibilities of the job by asking: * What are the main tasks of the job and how often do they need to be completed. * What mental processes are required to do the job. * Is the job holder required to take decisions and use initiative. * Is the output from the job a part or a whole. * Does the job holder have to work with others or control the work of others. * What are the required performance standards. Recruitment and selection are linked, selection interviews also present candidates with a realistic picture of what the job entails and what it will like to work for the business. Selection interviews are well organised they must be arranged at convenient locations and times. The selection should attempt to get the best people within the existing budgets i.e. candidates with the most appropriate skills, experience and attitudes. It should also select people who will stay with the business for a reasonable time and minimise the costs of recruitment and selection relative to returns. In Safeways selection depends on the position you have applied for, one of the following selection processes will apply: At this level, we call our store recruitment process Selecting for Excellence. It usually consists of 2-3 stages depending on the position youve applied for. Selection Process * Completion of the Application Form. * You may be required to complete a pencil and paper test, followed by a short practical exercise which measures a range of skills and abilities. * Attend a selection interview. The recruitment process in Safeway is highlighted below: * During 2002/3 they created 1500 net jobs (permanent roles only), principally in stores across the Company. * This year they have centralised recruitment centre in Warrington became fully operational, and received a weekly average of 11,300 phone calls to their recruitment hot line. * They advertise vacancies for all stores on-line in the Careers section of their website and receive approximately 820 job applications via the Internet each week. * 32 graduates have joined the business this year, 12 on the new store specific graduate programme. * The retention of people is a key part of their HR strategy on an ongoing basis. Safeways work with other External organizations concerned with diversity or are members of include:- * The Employers Forum on Disability. * The Disability Rights Commission. * The Retail Employment Development Group (RED Group). * Diversity Network. * Re-employ. * The Employment Services (Job Centre Plus). * Age Positive. * Commission for Racial Equality (CRE). * DEXTRA, Diversity Network Group. * The Employers Forum on Age. The Employment Rights Act 1996 states that the employees should receive certain information within the first two months of starting their employment. All contracts of employment should include the following: * The names of the employer and the employee. * The name and address of the place of. * The date when employment began. * The job title. * Employment conditions e.g. full time, part time, permanent, temporary. * The salary. * The intervas in which the employee will be paid e.g. monthly or weekly. * Any terms and conditions relating to holiday entitlements (including public holidays, sick pay and pensions). * The length of notice required from either party. * If the employment is temporary, how long it is expected to continue. * Any disciplinary rules to which the employee may be subject. * Signatures. Training and Development Training envisages all types of planned learning experiences and activities aimed at making positive changes to the performance of the employees and other behaviour, which will help them gain new knowledge, skills, beliefs, values and attitudes. As the technology develops and advances with a very high speed, it is necessary for the business to acquire these new innovations which will be available in the market and provide appropriate training to its human resources so that it will be in a position to operate efficiently and be able to compete with other business of the same nature. The training programme for a business is part and parcel of manpower planning which require a through analysis and continuous adjustment over time in relation to the existing and the new technology. Safeway believes that its employees are its best assets, they are provided with knowledge, skills and tools to be the leading retailer in our markets. Whether its providing customer service, offering exceptional products at a competitive price or learning the latest in merchandising and display. The companys training program provides the individual with a solid foundation to achieve their best. There are different forms of training, namely; * Induction Training It is when employers introduce new employees to the business. Employers also have to make sure the employees are aware of the new environment and have the necessary information on specific areas of the business so that they can perform their tasks. The new recruit is sometimes given an induction pack by the employer, also an overview of Health and Safety, Security and Equal Opportunities. * Mentoring It is used by businesses so that employees can develop a good working relationship and it also provides employees a chance to learn new skills. Mentoring is mainly when a trainee is allocated to a more experienced employee. If and when the trainee faces any difficulties or problems with their duties, they must seek advice from the mentor. * Coaching This is when an employees performance is assessed by the manager, which helps the manager to identify the employees strengths and weaknesses which intern they will need to work together to develop their skills. The manager needs to develop their coaching skills, otherwise this will affect the success of any coaching programme. The manager coaching has to have the appropriate skills and sufficient time should be allocated so that the time could take place. * In-house training This is when a business builds its own training department, which provides employees with training and development using resources within the business. * External training External training always takes place away from the real working environment, which is an external course that employees are sent on. * The national training system: * Training enterprise councils This is sponsored by the government and led by local people, which helps businesses to identify their own training needs. * Investors in People The initiative is that investing in people is the most effective way of improving the performance of the business. The Tecs help to asses businesses that want to be recognised publicly as investor in people. * Individual learning accounts This is a sort of bank account which the government, the employer and the individual all contribute money which is then used to buy training and education. * Modern Apprenticeships- Modern Apprenticeships have been designed for people whose learning styles are more suited to a job with training, most of your training is done while you are at work, and lasts for around three or more years. It is very flexible which can be structured to meet different needs of employers. * National vocational qualifications the national vocational qualifications are indicators which show occupational qualifications. It is the ability of an employee to reach a specific kind of skills or competence in carrying out a specific job. An NVQ is awarded to an employee after an assessment done by the appropriate institution or work place. Additionally, 210 Bakers have completed the craft baking NVQ and over 7,000 colleagues have received craft skills and systems training at one of Safeways three Regional Training Centres. The NVQ is a vital part of management training, awarded by city guilds it is nationally recognised and on successful completion they will become a qualified NVQ assessor in their own right * National learning targets the national learning target is set by the government and it is expected that every business institution in the private or public sector to achieve those targets. These targets for example includes target for young, adults and for a businesses as a whole. Training and development is a continuous process helping Safeway to deliver its goals and benefits to its colleagues as their skills, competence and capability grow. Training for skills remains critical, and this year they launched apprenticeship programmes for Butchers, Fishmongers and Florists, with over 200 colleagues attending the Fishmonger course and 116 the Meat course. They have continued to provide support to the growing Non food offer by delivering training to support our 6 Mega stores and 50 Home Entertainment centres. Driving improvements in customer service continues to be critical and their Star Service programme was broadened this year to include Friendliest Store in Town. To support this, their Selecting for Excellence recruitment tool was extended to assess this key area. By Safeway building sustainable advantage over our competitors can only be done through their people, they create business culture in which their people are passionate about their products and have unbreakable will to compete and have the skills, knowledge and resources to do their best. Purpose of Performance Management The purpose of performance management is to achieve objectives of the business, to provide better customer service, to increase market share (volume, units, and value). Also to maximize profit, to motivate employees (encourage hard work and set targets) and to improve competition within the business. To make the purpose of performance management understandable along with my businesses approach it is important to understand how the HR manager measures performance. * Performance Management The performance management process provides an opportunity for the employee and performance manager to discuss development goals and jointly create a plan for achieving those goals. Development plans should contribute to business goals and the professional growth of the employee. The planning process must also involve consideration of the emerging business environment, for some performance managers the changing environment offers many new challenges and opportunities. Performance managers and their employees are increasingly being asked to become generalists who step outside of traditional narrowly-defined job descriptions in support of team objectives and goals. These changes are resulting in the development of new approaches to human resource management. * Management by Objectives This is a system in which specific performance objectives are jointly determined by managers and their employees, the progress toward objectives is reviewed periodically and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress. The principles of management by objectives are specific objectives for each employee, performance evaluation and feedback and explicit time period. All objectives should be discussed with both managers and employees, this process is used and is likely to be successful if the businesses objectives met the SMART criteria. These are known as the following: S Specific M Measurable A Agreed R Realistic T Time related * Monitoring Performance This process requires the measurement of performance which then needs to be linked with these performance measurements against the achievement of objectives. What needs to be taken into account when comparing performance with targets is the general context that a particular operation is taking place. * Individual Performance Review This process is for individual employees, which is usually implemented with the following review systems: All Safeway colleagues have a performance review at least once a year, although more frequent reviews may be requested by individual colleagues. The progress of new colleagues is reviewed at six, twelve, eighteen and twenty-six week intervals after appointment. * Appraisal This system is used by the employer to help them review the standard of work being done by employees within the business, and also assess the value or contribution of individual employees. It is used by employers to reinforce company goals, identify training needs and career opportunities, recognise good performance and review and set targets. Appraisals can be expensive and time consuming, but good appraisals have positive effect on employees motivation. Instead of appraising employees by rating their performance, which could intern discourage employees involvement and will not help overcome weaknesses. Some managers may use personal performance interview, which should cover a review of performance objectives over the previous year, an assessment of an employees strengths and weaknesses based upon key job related criteria and a personal job improvement plan. * Self Evaluation This is when an employee is asked to review their own performance before attending a performance review interview, this enables employees what their objectives are and identify training and development needs. * Peer Evaluation Peer evaluation can be a useful and valuable tool in helping employees to develop their critical skills and insight into the evaluation process. By making a critical appraisal of another employees work or performance, they can begin to understand the requirements of the business and what it entails. The only problem with this objectivity is that some employees might be in competition for a promotion or perhaps favour a friend to promote their own personal interests. * 360 Degree Evaluation This is one of the instruments that is used to evaluate the performance appraisal based on data collected from all around employee, such as customers, supervisors, peers and sub-ordinates. This evaluation provides feedback on abilities, skills, knowledge and effectiveness of the employee with the business. Based on the findings of the evaluation it can be highlighted the areas that need to be improved and type of training that needs to be undertaken to further develop the skills and the knowledge of the employees, further more the data collected will serve as a basis for any future improvement of the business activities as well as giving a new guideline for the management. This kind of evaluation will also help deal with emergency situations and build up a strong relationship between management and employee. * Managing performance in the modern business environment The business environment is subject a continuous changes and it is the most critical aspect of effective management. The performance management has to reflect these constant changes which have an extensive and complex impact on business. Managing Change These changes are of different nature, and the response varies with the situation. If these changes are badly handled can lead to serious consequences, which may include: * The frustration of sound strategies and the lack of its implementation. * The costs of implementation may rise. There might be unnecessary delays, spoilt work and emergency action to reduce the impact of delay all add to costs. * Benefit of the market may be lost due to the inability to compete with businesses in the market. * The human consequences of the change may be high. For example when people lose their jobs due to change or when the change is handled carelessly or without adequate planning. * Motivation reduced or lost within the business as people become confused due to poor management. * Resistance to future change may increase when they see their worst fears about the change are justified. The management has to adapt new methods in response to the changes in the labour, consumer, world and technological markets. The management has also to ensure that all measures in response to the changes should be smooth and effective with minimum damage to the employees and the business itself. Employee Welfare Any organization has the obligation to provide its employees with suitable and safe working environment and abide by the employees rights and interests. An organization has also the obligation of abiding by new government legislation and regulation and if it fails to do so it can face prosecution or financial costs. Some employers and business organizations are of the opinion that the recent legislation on working hours has limited their ability to operate flexibly and made it more difficult to improve their performance. Working Time Directive In October 1998 the UK government has introduced a new Working Time Directive as a measure designed to protect the health and safety of employees. This Directive covers seven areas: * Maximum working weekly hours- it should exceeds 48 hours, but it leaves the option for an employee to increase if he or she wishes. * Employees are entitled to have 11 consecutive hours in each 24hr period of daily rest. * An employee that has worked six hours is entitled to a 20 minute rest break. * In each seven day period employees are entitled to an uninterrupted rest period of 24hrs. * An employee must get at least four weeks paid annual leave by their employer. * An employer should make sure that employees take regular breaks and are not subjected to high risk tasks. * An average of eight hours in any 24hr period should be worked by night workers but if they should get sick they then must have the option to move to day jobs. Maternity and paternity leave According to the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and the Employment Rights Act 1996 have entitled pregnant employees, maternity leave regardless their length. The maternity leave has been extended from 14 to 18 weeks, under the 1999 legislation. Employees are entitled to their statuary and fringe benefits during their leave period, and are free to come back to work after maternity leave. The earliest time that can be taken is 11 weeks before the baby is due. Many employers do not grant paid maternity leave, and there is no legal legislation for it. Although some companies and local councils grant paid leave, and the average leave period for paternity is ten days. Safeway aims to assist both male and female colleagues in managing their individual work-life balance, through a wide range of employment policies and practices in areas such as maternity and paternity leave and flexible working, many of which offer benefits over and above any minimum legal requirements. The Minimum wage In order to protect employees from exploitation this law was introduced in April 1999, it covers any UK employee who is aged 18 or older. The legislation covers agency workers, home workers, casual and temporary employees, and people on fixed term or freelance contracts as well as full and part time employees. Currently there are three bands for minimum wage: * A rate of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.60 per hour for those aged 22 and over. * A rate of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.00 per hour for those aged 18 to 21. * A rate of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3.20 per hour for those who are 22, and are within the first six months of a new job. * Improving performance through raising employee motivation * Motivation A strong team needs individuals who are dedicated to giving their best at work. Highly self-motivated, committed, ambitious employees give the most to their company and get the most from their work. But if employees are lacking motivation the effects can be dramatic, such as low team morale, lack of initiative, lack of energy, mistakes and high staff turnover. Motivational experiences improve employee attitudes, confidence and performance. Good leadership demands good people-motivation skills, motivational methods are wide-ranging, from inspirational quotes and poems, to team building games and activities, as ice-breakers or warm-ups and exercises for conferences, workshops, meetings and events which are great for staff motivation. When you break down barriers such as misunderstandings, prejudices, insecurities, divisions, territories and hierarchies you begin to build teams. If you take a group of people in a room having fun with juggling balls or spinning plates and barriers are immediately removed, teams unite and work together when they identify a common purpose. It can also be generated by a pay increase, by promotion or by simply by the status and satisfaction associated with possessing a new skill using the most up to date machinery or equipment. Managers can use non financial and financial means to motivate employees. This year the key areas for them to focus on with regards to their colleagues will be retention, development, motivation and maintaining morale. They will need to do this whilst preparing for and responding to any changes which the business may face. * Hertzbergs two factor theory Hertzbergs two factor theories is a simple but powerful way to understand an employees needs. Hertzberg believed that Hygiene and Motivator are two levels of needs which are as equally important for job satisfaction even though they worked in different ways. If the lower needs are inadequate workers will quickly become dissatisfied, however, as these needs are satisfied trying to motivate staff by just adding more hygiene factors such as wages or work hours is an inefficient and short term solution. A better way would be to appeal to their higher level needs by giving them more responsibility or giving them greater scope for advancement, in this way the individuals goals are satisfied as well as those of the business. The two factors are the following: Hygiene Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include: * Company policy and administration. * Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration. * Quality of supervision. * Quality of inter-personal relations. * Working conditions. * Feelings of job security. Safe has implemented its own hygiene management, a review of cleaning standards within stores has commenced with the objective of building on existing cleaning procedures. This has involved a comprehensive review of their cleaning procedures assessing developments in the cleaning industry to enable the best and most effective use of consumables and equipment used to clean their stores. Motivator Motivator factors are based on an individuals need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include: * Status * Opportunity for advancement * Gaining recognition * Responsibility * Challenging / stimulating work * Sense of personal achievement * Personal growth in a job * McGregors theory X and theory Y Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book The Human Side of Management, he suggested that there were two types of employees each with different needs. McGregors X-Y theory is a simple reminder of the natural rules of managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are easily forgotten. He also argues that the type of employee a person will become is influenced by the management style they are under. Theory X It conveys negative view of human nature, but is the primary source of most employee motivation. A Theory X manager assumes the following: * Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will attempt to avoid work whenever possible. * Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed. * Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems. * Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslows Needs Hierarchy * Most people are self centred and must be closely controlled and often pushed to achieve business objectives. * Most people resist change. Theory Y This argues that employees gain reward from the job itself and are not money motivated, a theory Y manager makes the following assumptions: * Work can be as natural as play if the conditions are favourable. * People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and organizational objectives if they are committed to them. * People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in places that address higher needs such as self-fulfilment. * The capacity for creativity spreads throughout organizations. * Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population. * Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility. * Maslow`s hierarchy of needs Maslow`s theory consisted of two parts the classification of human needs and consideration of how the classes are related to each other. The classes of needs were summarized by Maslow as follows: A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy and will initially seek to satisfy basic needs (e.g. food, shelter).Once these physiological needs have been satisfied, they are no longer a motivator. The individual moves up to the next level which is safety needs at work could include physical safety (e.g. protective clothing) as well as protection against unemployment, loss of income through sickness etc. Social needs recognize that most people want to belong to a group, these would include the need for love and belonging (e.g. working with a colleague who supports you at work, teamwork, communication) Esteem needs are about being given recognition for a job well done, they reflect the fact that many people seek the esteem and respect of others even perhaps a promotion at work might achieve this. Self-actualization is about how people think about themselves which often measured by the extent of success or challenge at work. Maslows model has great potential appeal in the business world. The message is clear if management can find out which level each employee has reached, then they can decide on suitable rewards. * Taylors principles Frederick Taylor in his 1911 book Principles of Scientific Management intensified the view that employees are motivated by money. Taylor discussed what he called a struggle for control of production between management and labour. In order to control production he developed methods for the measure and design of machining methods as part of a general plan for increasing the planning functions of management. By management planning and providing the support to show the workforce how best to do the job. It showed this clear line and staff organisational structure, productivity would increase because the employee recognizing the higher output would lead to higher pay. Taylors principles would support the use of these three pay systems, which are as follows: * Performance Related pay (PRP) Performance related pay has been much advocated by governments as a means of promoting labour market flexibility and generating higher productivity, this links output and performance to pay. Due to employee ability to reach specific targets they receive bonuses, PRP rewards good performance so it should motivate. Small increases can prevent feelings of dissatisfaction but to create motivation in a person who will be motivated by money it is necessary for the amounts to be large. Some think that this demotivating employees because it categorises them as good and bad performers because they fail to achieve their targets. * Piece rates Employees are encouraged to produce as much output as possible and maximize productivity, this allows employers to identify good performers. It provides employees with a variable income and payment is directly linked to output. Although by paying for quantity not quality, standards can be sacrificed as employees strive to gain rewards. * Commission based pay Is for sales staff and employees and are paid a percentage of the value of goods they sell. This motivates employees because due to the level of their salary is determined by their own performance ad help sell the company products. There is no doubt that the human resources management constitutes one of the important elements which contributes to the success of a business. Besides capital, the element of human resources management requires proper utilization, planning and investment. Investing in human resources includes staff training and development, motivation, recruitment and their wellbeing so that they can be retained in order to carry out their tasks and avoid the unnecessary turnover. Promotion, improvement of staff working conditions, better salaries all contribute to the high standard of production and to the high level of competition in the market. The healthier way of using capital is positively related to the better human resources management. Qualified human resources improve the competitiveness of business and allow it expansion. As the production technology develops and improves almost on daily basis, it is necessary to have staffs who are properly training to use the new technology. The use of new technology will allow competing with other businesses, reducing costs of production and increasing business profits. Safeway works very hard to maintain their competitive edge, but there will always be times when products are cheaper in one supermarket chain than another. In fact there are often times when Safeway are cheaper and they aim to stay ahead of their rivals by offering the best balance of quality and value and they trust that customers feel that in general they succeed. Here are some of their pioneering initiatives in this area: * Every week they offer customers great value promotions in Safeway Mega-Deals leaflet. * They were one of the first to introduce an economy range, Safeway Savers, which offers low prices. Conflicts may arise between different human resources management within the same business activities due to lack of coordination, understanding and proper planning. Activities need to be coordinated before undertaking. Conflicts can cause lost time, resources, and efficiency in any work team. But when managed well, conflicts can result in new ideas, more informed decision making, and better performance. But managing conflict effectively requires skill, knowledge and experience. These days every organization must train its employees to effectively manage conflict and resolve issues that block performance. If this were to occur at Safeway they should again need to use communication skills to avoid this problem, because this is a simple conflict that can be resolved by simple communication with the two human resources functions. If this was done they will see that the employee was the one who was not following his training techniques. However the member of staff may have not been trained and the performance management team may think he has and think his performance standards are not acceptable. These tools will help training and human resources professionals to provide members of their organizations with critical Conflict Management capabilities. These training programmes include workshops on management, leadership, communication, negotiation and diversity. Conclusion Effective Human Resources management is critical to the success of any firm. Human resources practices will contribute to the greater financial performance and productivity as well as reduced employee turnover. The changes expected in the next twenty years will cause many challenges to human resource professionals. Therefore, in order to facilitate these changes, many roles and competencies must be developed and the necessary tools such as information technology should be sought to aid along with the process. Over the last 20 years, the workplace has changed in more ways that one could have ever imagined, resulting from the increase in technology, innovation and globalization. The next decade will bring even greater change, impacting all facets of the workplace, including major changes for the Human Resources Department and human resource managers. In order to respond to the demands of globalization, HR managers will require new skills and competencies relating to language and culture, technological capabilities to facilitate overseas communication, methods to measure and quantify effectiveness and evaluate strategies and return on investment. Evidently, these new skills and competencies will result in an emerging new role for HR managers, requiring them to be strategic business partners, supportive of the overall corporate strategy. The future of role of human resources professionals will change from a less administrative role to more of a strategic role (Workforce, January 1998, 89). HR managers will continually be required to prove their effectiveness and their existence. They will be expected to understand international business practices and promote cultural diversity within the organization. They will need to understand the core business of the organization and become partners with line managers. They will need to prove that their initiatives and programs are results-oriented, providing specific measurable results in terms of business competitiveness that contribute positively to the bottom-line of the organization. They will be required to stay current with leading-edge as more and more organizations are faced with the demands of globalization and strategic alliances with other organizations around the world

Inspirational teacher Essay Example for Free

Inspirational teacher Essay Dear Ms. Cornell, On the last day of my 9th grade English class, I gathered my books, took one last look around, and wondered if you and I would ever cross paths again. As you erased the chalk board, I wondered how many students were actually as inspired by you as I was. I considered interrupting your meticulous erasing, but decided against it, coming to the conclusion that you had had enough of us rowdy 9th graders for one school year. Your English class was my favorite, and I always looked forward to the exciting activities you’d come up with for us to participate in. Going into the 9th grade, I didn’t think that group activities and reading those â€Å"long† short stories would be something that I actually looked forward to, but you changed my outlook completely. I never thought I would have the opportunity to contact you again as I ventured off to high school to pursue the final years of structured schooling. It’s funny, though†¦as I walked out of your class room, you stayed with me through the duration of my schooling. The way that you taught inspired me in ways that no other teacher could. Your exclusive focus on each individual student you encountered helped me to understand that everyone is, indeed, individual. The creativity you incorporated into each lesson plan helped me to see that nothing has to be boring†¦it’s all in the way that a person approaches it. The little methods you utilized to make large exercises seem small and easy encouraged me to break down my large assignments into several small tasks. Something about the way you spoke to us kids made anything impossible seem absolutely attainable. I am in the process of completing my credentials to become a grade school teacher. I have completed student-teaching for Kindergarten, 1st, 3rd and 4th grade classes. I can now say that I honestly understand why this field is so rewarding. The kids are always so eager to see me. As I did with you, they continually await the learning activities I have planned for them. The various students I have had the opportunity to work with remind me of when I was young and dependent on the grown-up standing in the front of the room trying to teach me all the things I would need to know in life. As I approach the end of my formal education, I felt it was important to let you know that you played an important role in what I chose my career to be. Though the grades are different, the purpose is the same. Watching you effortlessly pass on your knowledge to a bunch of somewhat unappreciative 14-year olds gave me aspiration to practice a career in education. You had a major impact in my life and my hope is that one day I will be someone’s â€Å"Ms. Cornell. † For everything that you taught me, and for everything that you do, Thank you. Sincerely, ________________________________________ Check out the new AOL. Most comprehensive set of free safety and security tools, free access to millions of.

Biochemical and Hormonal Changes in Childhood Obesity

Biochemical and Hormonal Changes in Childhood Obesity The prevalence of chronic or non communicable disease is escalating much more rapidly in developing countries than in industrialized countries. According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, by the 2020, non communicable diseases will account for approximately three quarter of all deaths in the developing countries (WHO. Global Strategy for non communicable disease prevention, 1997). In this regard, a potential emerging public health issue for the developing countries may be increasing incidence of childhood obesity with associated complications, which in turn is likely to create public health burden for poorer nations in the near future (Freedman et al, 2001). Lower to middle income nations face the double burden of having both malnourished and over nourished population, with most overweight and obese children being concentrated in urban areas. Rapid urbanization is associated with unhealthy lifestyle or New World Syndrome. In addition, in such communities, childhood obesit y is still considered a sign of healthiness and high social class. There is no universal consensus on a cut off points for defining overweight and obesity in children and adolescents, usually, for clinical practice and epidemiological studies, child overweight and obesity are assessed by means of indicators based on weight and height measurements, such as weight for height measures or body mass index (weight (kg)/height (m2))(WHO. Report series no.847, 1995).The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines obese as being at or above 95th percentile of body mass index for age (Kuczmarsk RJ et al, 2000). History of obesity is both interesting and gives details of its progression. Obesity is an age-old health condition. Through out the history of obesity, its reputation varies from appreciation and opposite among cultures and in time. Ancient Egyptians are said to consider obesity as disease. Perhaps the most famous and earliest evidence of obesity is the Venus figurines, Statuettes of an obese female torso that probably had a major role in rituals. Ancient China has also been aware of obesity and dangers that come with it. They always were a believer of prevention as a key to longevity. The Aztecs believed that obesity was supernatural, an affliction of the gods. Hippocrates, the father of medicines was aware of sudden deaths being more common among obese men than lean ones as stated in his writings. In certain cultures and areas where food is scarce and poverty is prevalent, is viewed as symbol of wealth and social status. To date, an African tribe purposely plumps up a bride to pre pare her for child bearing. Before a wedding can be set, a slim bride is pampered to gain weight until she reaches the suitable weight. Through out the history of obesity, the publics view and status of obesity changed considerably in the 1900s. It was regarded as unfashionable by the French designer, Paul Poi ret who designed skin-revealing clothes for women. About the same time, the incidence of obesity began to increase and become wide spread. Later in 1940s, Metropolitan life insurance published a chart of ideal weight for various heights. They also advocated that weight gain parallel to age is unhealthy. The government and medical society become more hands-on with obesity by imitating campaign against it. This was preceded by a study of risk factors for cardiovascular disease revealing obesity in the high ranks. Since then various diets and exercise programs have emerged. In 1996, the Body Mass Index (BMI) was published. This statistical calculation and index determined that a person is obese or not. At this time ,obesity incidence have soared, led by children and adolescent obesity, tripling in just a few short years, greater than any number in the history of obesity. This increase in the incidence of childhood obesity with associated cardiovascular risks, type 2 diabetes mellitus and stroke is supported by a considerable body of evidence. The prevalence of overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescents has been increasing throughout much of the developed and developing world for the past few decades. It has become increasingly clear that excess adiposity in childhood predisposes individual not only to increased risk of adiposity and its sequaele as adults (Freedman et al, 2001), but also to increased risk of multiple chronic diseases in childhood and adolescence (Rosen bloom et al, 1999). Though mechanism not clearly delineated, excess body weight and adiposity is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications, cardiovascular disease risk factors, non alcoholic fatty liver disease and asthma in youth. Childhood Obesity 1930 1972 Risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance and vascular abnormalities were present in overweight children. CHD is likely to be increased in overweight children when they become adults as a result of established risk factors. This study investigated whether excess weight in childhood was associated with CHD in adulthood among a very large cohort of persons born in Denmark in 1930 through 1972. They underwent mandatory annual health examination at public or private schools in Copenhagen. Each child was examined by school doctors or nurses and was assigned a health card bearing childs name, date of birth, birth weight reported by parents. 10,235 men and 4,318 women, for whom childhood BMI data were available, received a diagnosis of CHD or died of CHD as adults. The risk of CHD event, a non fatal event, and a fatal event among adults was positively associated with BMI at 7-13 years of age for boys and 10 to 13 years of ag e as girls. The associations were linear for each age and risk increased across the entire BMI distribution. Childhood Obesity 1930 1972 Risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance and vascular abnormalities were present in overweight children. CHD is likely to be increased in overweight children when they become adults as a result of established risk factors. This study investigated whether excess weight in childhood was associated with CHD in adulthood among a very large cohort of persons born in Denmark in 1930 through 1972. They underwent mandatory annual health examination at public or private schools in Copenhagen. Each child was examined by school doctors or nurses and was assigned a health card bearing childs name, date of birth, birth weight reported by parents. 10,235 men and 4,318 women, for whom childhood BMI data were available, received a diagnosis of CHD or died of CHD as adults. The risk of CHD event, a non fatal event, and a fatal event among adults was positively associated with BMI at 7-13 years of age for boys and 10 to 13 years of ag e as girls. The associations were linear for each age and risk increased across the entire BMI distribution. Childhood Obesity and Economic Growth 1930-1983 Childhood obesity was related to the economic growth during the 50 years of economic growth in the industrialized world especially in Denmark. Annual measurements of height and weight were available for all children born between 1930 and 1983 attending primary schools in Copenhagen Municipality. 165,389 boys and 163,609 girls from the age of 7 through 13 years were included in this study. After computerization SBMI (kg/m2) were calculated and the prevalence of overweight and obesity according to international age and gender–specific criteria. Economics growth was indicated by the Gross National Product and the overall consumption per capita, adjusted for inflation. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among Danish children rose in phases, which were not paralleled by trends in economic growth. The microeconomics growth indicators seem inappropriate as proxies for the environmental exposures that have elicited the obesity epidemic. Childhood obesity and television viewing Children spend a substantial portion of their lives watching television (TV). Investigators have hypothesized that TV viewing causes obesity by one or more than three mechanisms: Displacement of physical activity. Increased calorie consumption while watching or caused by the effects of advertising. Reduced resting metabolism. The relationship between TV viewing and obesity has been examined in a relatively large number of cross sectional epidemiological but few longitudinal studies. Many of them have found relatively weak, positive association or mixed results. Many experimental studies have found that reducing TV viewing may help to reduce the risk of obesity. One school based experimental study was designed specifically to test directly the casual relationship between TV viewing behaviors and body fatness. The results of this randomized controlled trial provide evidence that TV viewing is a cause of increased body fatness and that reducing the TV viewing is a promising strategy for preventing childhood obesity (Robinson; 2001). The objective of another study (Utter J et al, 2006), was to explore how time spent watching television (TV) is associated with the dietary behavior of New Zealand children and young adolescents. Total number of participants was 3275 children aged 5-17 years. The findings suggest that longer duration of TV watching (thus more frequent exposure to advertising) influences the frequency of consumption of soft drinks, some sweets and snacks and some fast foods among children and young adolescents. Efforts to control the time spent watching TV may result in better dietary habits and weight control for children and adolescents. Childhood Obesity US- A decade of progress, 1990-1999 Current data suggest that 20% of US children are overweight .An analysis of the secular trends suggest that 20% of US children are overweight, and a clear up ward trend in body weight in children of 0.2 Kg between 1973 and 1994. In addition, childhood obesity is more prevalent among minority sub groups such as African Americans. Obesity that begins early in life persists into adulthood and increases the risk of obesity related conditions later in life. There has been tremendous increase in the number of studies examining the etiology and health effects of obesity in children (Goran MI, 1990-1999).1980 (boys 0.2% girls 0.5%) and 1997 (boys 1.2%, girls 2.0%). Ten years trends of childhood obesity in Israel 1990-2000 Cross sectional data was collected from 13284 second and fifth class school; children between 1990-2000. Prevalence of obesity was determined using Israeli and US reference values. BMI values at 95th percentile increased overtime in all ages and sex categories. Between 1990 and 2000, 95th centile values were increased by 12.7%and 11.8% among second grade boys and girls respectively. Among fifth graders in 2000, 10.7% of boys and 11.1% of girls exceeded the 1990 BMI reference values. The proportion of obese children increased over time using both Israeli and US reference values (Huerta Michael et al, 2008). Netherlands. Overweight, Obesity in 2003: V.1980-97. Data on 90,071 children, aged 4-16 years were routinely collected by 11 Community Heath Services during 2002-2004. International cut -off points for BMI to determine overweight and obesity. On average, 14.5% of boys and 17.5% of the girls were overweight (including obesity), which is a substantial increase since 1980 (boys 3.9% and girls 6.9%) and 1997 (boys 9.7% and girls 13%). Similarly 2.6% of the boys and 3.3% 0f the girls aged 4-16 years were obese, which is much higher than in 1980 (boys 0.2% and girls 0.5%) and 1997 (boys 1.2% and girls 2.0%), (KatjaVan Den Husk, 2007). Obesity trends in US. 2003-2006 Height and weight measurements were obtained from 8164 children and adolescents as apart of the 2003-2004 and 2005-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Because no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of high BMI for age were found between the estimates for 2003-2004 and 2005-2006, data for four years were combined to provide more stable estimates for the most recent time period. Over all, in 2003-2006, 11.3% of children and adolescents aged 2 through years were at or above 97th percentile of the 2000 BMI- for- age growth charts, 16.3% were at or above 95th percentile. Prevalence estimates vary by age and by racial/ethnic group. Analysis of the trends in high BMI for age showed no statistically significant trend over the four time periods (1999-2000, 2001-2002, 2003-2004, and 2005-2006) for either boys or girls (Cynthia l.Ogden et al, 2008). 11-March 2005. Public Release Date: Consensus on Childhood Obesity, Recommends classification as disease A common statement on childhood obesity was published to day in the journal of Chemical Endocrinology and Metabolism (one of the journals of Endocrine Society). The consensus statement reflects the conclusions from an international summit held in Israel last year (2004) and includes a controversial recommendation to classify obesity as a disease. This decision was based upon the available research on the diagnosis, prevalence, causes (including endocrine disorders), risks, prevention and treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatric obesity is now recognized as a major health problem all over the world. Researcher have found that children who are obese have a higher risks adult obesity, which is strongly associated with many serious medical complications that impair quality of life and lead to additional increased risks. The statement also noted the prevalence of overweight/obesity among children 6-11 years (in the US) doubled between the years 1980-2000. By classifying obesity as legiti mate disease, public funding and in user sreimbursement for obesity treatment becomes legalized (consensus on childhood obesity, 2005). Serious health risks will likely to begin to appear in obese children and adolescents as they grow older. These may include diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, hyperandrogenism, heart disease, hypertension, respiratory factors, and sleep disorders. Obese children are also at greater risk of anxiety and depression. It also recommended a number of measures that can be implemented by parents; schools, health providers and government and regulatory agencies to help to prevent the onset of childhood obesity Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism Adipocytokines and Obesity The mechanism underlying obesity was further explained by the discovery of adipocytokines, the role of peripheral thyroid hormones (T4, T3), thyroid stimulating hormone and insulin the regulation of energy metabolism. The levels of some of the adipocytokines were shown to be related to visceral obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease. Plasma levels of all the adipocytokines increase with the obesity except adiponectin (Yuji Matsuzawa et al, 2003). Recent studies point out to the adipose tissue as a highly active organ secreting a range of hormones, Leptin, Adiponectin, and Resistin. They are considered to take part in the regulation of energy metabolism. Leptin, Adiponectin and Resistin are produced by the adipose tissue. Leptin and Adiponectin are insulin sensitizing while Resistin increase the insulin resistance. Leptin The notion that genetic abnormalities contribute to obesity gained important support with the identification of the Ob gene and its protein product in 1994 (Zhangy et al, 1996). The Ob gene termed Leptin from the Greek Leptos, meaning thin, is produced in adipose tissue and is thought to act as an afferent satiety signal in a feed back loop that affects the appetite and satiety centre in the hypothalamus of brain. The ultimate effect of this loop is to regulate body-fat mass. In human, as noted by Considine et al, 1996; caloric restriction reduces leptin concentrations and Ob mRNA levels in adipose tissue, and refeeding increases these levels. One fundamental mechanism of obesity is insensitivity to the action of Leptin, presumably in the hypothalamus. The Leptins primary physiological function is to provide a signal to suppress body fat by decreasing food intake or increasing energy expenditure. Serum leptin concentrations change more during weight loss than during weight gain (Rose nbaum M et al, 1997). Adiponectin Adiponectin or Adipo Q, an adipocyte specific secreted protein with roles in glucose and lipid homeostasis (Insulin stimulates the secretion of adiponectin). Circulating adiponectin concentrations are high 500-30,000 Â µg/l (5-30mg/ml) accounting for 0.01% of total plasma proteins (Berget et al, 2002). Adiponectin was discovered in the mid 1990s by four different groups of researchers (Hu E et al, 1996). Adiponectin has various biological functions including insulin sensitizing (Hotta K et al, 2000), antiatherogenic (Yamauchi T et al, 2003), anti-inflammatory (Ouchi N et al, 2003), antiangiogenic and anti tumor functions (Brakenhielm E et al, 2004). Adiponectin acts through Adiponectin receptors, Adipo R1 and Adipo R2. Adipo R1 is mostly expressed in skeletal muscles and Adipo R2 is abundant in liver. These receptors are also expressed by the pancreatic ß cells (Kharroubi et al, 2003), macrophages and atherosclerotic lesions (Chinetti et al, 2004) as well as in brain (Yamauchi et al, 2003). Circulating Adiponectin levels display diurnal variation with a nocturnal decline and maximum levels in the late morning (Gavrila et al, 2003). Adiponectin is also found in breast milk, which in turn is implicated in childhood obesity prevention (Savino et al, 2008). Among the various adipocytokines, adiponectin, which is an abundant circulating protein (247 amino acids) synthesized purely in adipose tissue, appears to play a very important role in carbohydrates, lipid metabolism and vascular biology. Adiponectin appears to be a major modulator of insulin action and its levels are reduced in type 2 diabetes mellitus, which could contribute to peripheral insulin resistance in this condition. It has significant insulin sensitizing as well as anti inflammatory properties that include suppression of macrophage phagocytosis and TNF-a secretion and blockage of monocytes adhesion to endothelial cells in vitro. Although further investigations are required, Adiponectin administration, as well as regulation of the pathway controlling its production, represents a promising target for managing obesity, hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and vascular inflammation (Manju Chandran et al, 2003). Resistin Human resistin is 108 amino acids prepeptide and is cleaved before its secretion from the Adipose tissue. Resistin circulates in the blood as dimeric protein consisting of 92 amino acids polypeptides that are linked by a disulfide bridge. Holcomb et al, 2000 first described the gene family and its tissue specific distribution. Originally described as lung specific, is also produced by the adipose tissue and peripheral blood monocytes. It is also present in dividing epithelia of the intestine. Resistin increase blood glucose and insulin concentration in the mice and impairs hypoglycemic response to insulin infusion. In addition, anti resistin antibodies decrease blood glucose and insulin sensitivity in obese mice (Ukkalo O, 2002). The physiological role of resistin in human remains controversial. There more resistin protein in obese than lean individuals, with a significant positive correlation between resistin and BMI. BMI is a significant predictor of insulin resistance, but resisti n adjusted for BMI is not. These data demonstrate that resistin protein is present in human adipose tissue and blood and that there is significantly more resistin in serum of obese individuals. Serum resistin is not a significant predictor of insulin resistance in human (Youn et al, 2003, Rear R and Donnelly R, 2004). Tumor Necrosis Factor-a It will be unreasonable not to mention the Tumor Necrosis Factor a and its role in vascular inflammation related to atherosclerosis especially in obesity. It is a cytokine involved in systemic inflammation and is a member of a group of cytokines that stimulate the acute phase reaction. The primary role of TNF is in the regulation of immune cells. TNF is able to induce apoptotic cell death, to induce inflammation and to inhibit tumourgenesis and viral replication. Dysregulation and, in particular, over production of TNF have been implicated in a variety of human diseases, as well as cancer (Locksley et al, 2001). The theory of antitumoural response of the immune system in vivo was recognized by the physician William B in 1968. Dr A Granger reported a cytotoxic factor produced by lymphocytes and named it Lymphotoxin (Kalli WB and Granger GA, 1968). Dr L Loyal old, in 1975 reported another cytotoxic factor produced by macrophages and named it Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) (Cars well et al, 1975). Interleukin – 6 (IL-6) Chronic inflammation is linked to endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003 and Fernandez-Real JM, Ricart W, 2005). Plasma concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL) 18, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, and of several other inflammatory markers are increased in patients with ischemic heart disease (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003, Ridker PM et al, 2002, Engstrom G et al, 2004, Ridker PM et al, 1997, Pradham AD et al, 2002). Circulating cytokines also are elevated in type 2 diabetes, obesity, and insulin resistance syndrome and play a central role in the pathogenesis of these disorders (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003). IL-6 is a mediator of the inflammatory response, and it is linked to dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, and risk of myocardial infarction (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003, Ridker PM et al, 2000, Esteve E et al, 2005, Yudkin JS et al, 2000). IL-6 is secreted by a variety of different cell types, including lymphoid and endothelial cells, fibroblasts, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue. Circulating IL-6 levels correlate with obesity and insulin resistance and may predict the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (Yudkin JS et al, 2000, Pradhan AD et al, 2001, Akira S et al, 1993, Mohamed-Ali V et al, 1997). Endothelial dysfunction is regarded as a causal factor in the development of atherosclerosis (Hansson GK, 2005). It is one of the earliest abnormalities that can be detected in people at risk for cardiovascular events, and it is linked to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (Steinberg HO and Baron AD, 2002, Natali A et al, 2006). Cytokines have an important role in the endothelial injury induced by inflammation. The vascular endothelium is involved in the inflammatory response to atherosclerosis (Hansson GK, 2005, Steinberg HO and Baron AD, 2002, Natali A et al, 2006, Widlansky ME et al, 2003), and changes in endothelium function could underlie the association between cardiovascular disease and inflammation. Obesity Related Insulin Resistance: Definition and Pathogenesis Insulin resistance is a state in which a given amount of insulin produces a subnormal biological response (Kahn CR, 1978). In particular, it is characterized by a decrease in the ability of insulin to stimulate the use of glucose by muscles and adipose tissue and to suppress hepatic glucose production and output (Matthaei et al, 2000). Furthermore, it accounts a resistance to insulin action on protein and lipid metabolism and on vascular endothelial function and genes expression (Bajaj M and Defronzo RA, 2003). Several defects in the insulin signaling cascade have been implicated in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance, Insulin resistance is believed to have both genetic and environmental factors implicated in its etiology (Matthaei et al, 2000 and Liu et al, 2004). The genetic component seems to be polygenic in nature, and several genes have been suggested as potential candidates (Matthaei et al, 2000). However, several other factors can influence insulin sensitivity, such as obesity, ethnicity, gender, perinatal factors, puberty, sedentary lifestyle and diet (Liu et al, 2004). The Role of Fatty Acids and Adipocytokines Obesity represents the major risk factor for the development of insulin resistance in children and adolescents (Caprio S, 2002), and insulin resistance/hyperinsulinemia is believed to be an important link between obesity and the associated metabolic abnormalities and cardiovascular risk (Weiss R and Kaufman FR, 2008). Approximately, 55% of the variance in insulin sensitivity in children can be explained by total adiposity, after adjusting for other confounders, such as age, gender, ethnicity and pubertal stage (Caprio S, 2002). Obese children have hyperinsulinemia and peripheral insulin resistance with an ~40% lower insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism than non-obese children (Caprio S et al, 19996). Adipose tissue seems to play a key role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance through several released metabolites, hormones and adipocytokines that can affect different steps in insulin action (Matsuzawa Y, 2005) (Fig. 1). Adipocytes produce non-esterified fatty acids, which inhibit carbohydrate metabolism via substrate competition and impaired intracellular insulin signaling (Matsuzawa Y, 2005, Griffin ME et al 1999 and Randle PJ, 1998). In children, as in adults, several adipocytokines have been related to adiposity indexes as well as to insulin resistance. Adiponectin is one of the most common cytokines produced by adipose tissue, with an important insulin sensitizing effect associated with anti-atherogenetic properties (Despres JP, 2006 and Gil-Campos M et al, 2004). Whereas obesity is generally associated with an increased release of metabolites by adipose tissue, levels of Adiponectin are inversely related to adiposity (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Therefore, reduced levels of this adipocytokine have been implicated in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Decreased levels of Adiponectin have been detected across tertiles of insulin resistance in children and adolescents (Weiss R et al, 2004), where it is a good predictor of insulin sensitivity, independently of adiposity (Lee S et al, 2006). Adipose tissue also produces tumour necrosis factor-a, an inflammatory factor, which can alter insulin action at different levels in the intracellular pathway (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is ano ther inflammatory cytokine released by adipose tissue and its levels are increased in obesity (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). IL-6 stimulates the hepatic production of C-reactive protein and this can explain the state of inflammation associated with obesity, and could mediate, at least partially, obesity-related insulin resistance (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Data based mainly on animal studies also suggest that increased levels of resistin, another molecule produced by adipose tissue, could impair insulin sensitivity (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). The close relationship between Leptin levels and insulin resistance in children has also been suggested by the data (Chu NF et al, 2000). Serum levels of retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) correlate with insulin resistance in subjects with obesity as well as in those with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or type 2 diabetes mellitus, therefore suggesting that it could be useful in assessing insulin resistance and the associated risk for complications (Graham TE et al, 2006). Serum RBP4 is independently related to obesity as well as to components of the metabolic syndrome in normal weight and overweight children (Aeberli I et al, 2007). Diet composition in obese children might be an additional factor promoting and/or worsening insulin resistance. Animal and human studies suggest that a high energy intake as well as a diet rich in fat and carbohydrates and low in fiber could increase the risk of developing insulin resistance (Canete R et al, 2007). The Role of Fat Distribution An altered partitioning of fat between subcutaneous and visceral or ectopic sites has been associated with insulin resistance (Weiss R and Kaufman FR, 2008). Visceral fat has a better correlation with insulin sensitivity than subcutaneous or total body fat (Caprio S et al, 1995), in both obese adults and children. Visceral fat has higher lipolytic activity compared with subcutaneous fat, therefore a greater amount of free fatty acids and glycerol gain entry or carried out to the liver (Matthaei et al, 2000). Visceral fat in girls is directly correlated to the glucose-stimulated insulin levels and inversely correlated with insulin sensitivity and the rate of glucose uptake. No correlation was found between abdominal subcutaneous fat (Caprio S et al, 1995). Ectopic deposition of fat in the liver or muscle can also be responsible for insulin resistance in obese subjects, as the accumulation of fat in these sites impairs insulin signaling, with a reduced glucose uptake in the muscle and a decreased insulin-mediated suppression of hepatic glucose production (Weiss R and Kaufman FR, 2008). Intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) accumulation has been shown as a factor related to decreased insulin sensitivity (Jacob S et al, 1999 and Thamer C et al, 2003). Obese insulin sensitive children and adolescents present lower levels of visceral fat and IMCL when compared with obese insulin resistant children (Weiss R et al, 2005). Accumulation of fat in the liver has also been associated with insulin resistance, independently of adiposity (Kelley DE et al, 2003). It has also been suggested that deposits of fat around blood vessels can produce several cytokines and therefore contribute to the development of insulin resistance, through a so-called vasocrine effect (Yudkin JS et al, 2005). Insulin Resistance and Associated Complications Insulin resistance in obesity is strictly related to the development of hypertension (Marcovecchio ML et al, 2006 and Cruz ML et al, 2002), dyslipidemia (Howard BV and Howard WJ, 1994), impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) (Sinha R et al, 2002), hepatic steatosis (DAdamo E et al, 2008), as well as to the combination of these factors, also known as metabolic syndrome (Eckel RH et al, 2005). Furthermore, insulin resistance is associated with systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, early atherosclerosis and disordered fibrinolysis (Dan Dona P et al, 2002). It is alarming that these metabolic and cardiovascular complications are already found in obese children and adolescents (Dietz WH, 2004). The presence of these alterations in prepubertal children is then particularly worrying, as insulin resistance and related complications might be further exacerbated by the influence of puberty, due to the physiological decrease in insulin sensitivity associated with normal pubertal development (Caprio S et al, 1989). Insulin resistance in childhood can track in adult life (Sinaiko AR et al, 2006). Insulin resistance at the age of 13 years predicts insulin resistance at age 19 years, independently of BMI, and is also associated with cardiovascular risk in adulthood (Sinaiko AR et al, 2006). The fundamental role of insulin resistance in human disease was already recognized in 1988 by Reaven (Reaven GM, 1988) who emphasized its role in the development of a grouping of metabolic abnormalities, which he defined as syndrome X. Later studies strengthened the concept of insulin resistance as a key component of the metabolic syndrome, a cluster of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperinsulinemia, associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease (Eckel RH et al, 2005). Insulin resistance represents a serious and common complication of obesity during childhood and adolescence. A timely diagnosis and an appropriated prevention and treatment of obesity and insulin resistance are required in order to reduce the Biochemical and Hormonal Changes in Childhood Obesity Biochemical and Hormonal Changes in Childhood Obesity The prevalence of chronic or non communicable disease is escalating much more rapidly in developing countries than in industrialized countries. According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, by the 2020, non communicable diseases will account for approximately three quarter of all deaths in the developing countries (WHO. Global Strategy for non communicable disease prevention, 1997). In this regard, a potential emerging public health issue for the developing countries may be increasing incidence of childhood obesity with associated complications, which in turn is likely to create public health burden for poorer nations in the near future (Freedman et al, 2001). Lower to middle income nations face the double burden of having both malnourished and over nourished population, with most overweight and obese children being concentrated in urban areas. Rapid urbanization is associated with unhealthy lifestyle or New World Syndrome. In addition, in such communities, childhood obesit y is still considered a sign of healthiness and high social class. There is no universal consensus on a cut off points for defining overweight and obesity in children and adolescents, usually, for clinical practice and epidemiological studies, child overweight and obesity are assessed by means of indicators based on weight and height measurements, such as weight for height measures or body mass index (weight (kg)/height (m2))(WHO. Report series no.847, 1995).The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines obese as being at or above 95th percentile of body mass index for age (Kuczmarsk RJ et al, 2000). History of obesity is both interesting and gives details of its progression. Obesity is an age-old health condition. Through out the history of obesity, its reputation varies from appreciation and opposite among cultures and in time. Ancient Egyptians are said to consider obesity as disease. Perhaps the most famous and earliest evidence of obesity is the Venus figurines, Statuettes of an obese female torso that probably had a major role in rituals. Ancient China has also been aware of obesity and dangers that come with it. They always were a believer of prevention as a key to longevity. The Aztecs believed that obesity was supernatural, an affliction of the gods. Hippocrates, the father of medicines was aware of sudden deaths being more common among obese men than lean ones as stated in his writings. In certain cultures and areas where food is scarce and poverty is prevalent, is viewed as symbol of wealth and social status. To date, an African tribe purposely plumps up a bride to pre pare her for child bearing. Before a wedding can be set, a slim bride is pampered to gain weight until she reaches the suitable weight. Through out the history of obesity, the publics view and status of obesity changed considerably in the 1900s. It was regarded as unfashionable by the French designer, Paul Poi ret who designed skin-revealing clothes for women. About the same time, the incidence of obesity began to increase and become wide spread. Later in 1940s, Metropolitan life insurance published a chart of ideal weight for various heights. They also advocated that weight gain parallel to age is unhealthy. The government and medical society become more hands-on with obesity by imitating campaign against it. This was preceded by a study of risk factors for cardiovascular disease revealing obesity in the high ranks. Since then various diets and exercise programs have emerged. In 1996, the Body Mass Index (BMI) was published. This statistical calculation and index determined that a person is obese or not. At this time ,obesity incidence have soared, led by children and adolescent obesity, tripling in just a few short years, greater than any number in the history of obesity. This increase in the incidence of childhood obesity with associated cardiovascular risks, type 2 diabetes mellitus and stroke is supported by a considerable body of evidence. The prevalence of overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescents has been increasing throughout much of the developed and developing world for the past few decades. It has become increasingly clear that excess adiposity in childhood predisposes individual not only to increased risk of adiposity and its sequaele as adults (Freedman et al, 2001), but also to increased risk of multiple chronic diseases in childhood and adolescence (Rosen bloom et al, 1999). Though mechanism not clearly delineated, excess body weight and adiposity is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications, cardiovascular disease risk factors, non alcoholic fatty liver disease and asthma in youth. Childhood Obesity 1930 1972 Risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance and vascular abnormalities were present in overweight children. CHD is likely to be increased in overweight children when they become adults as a result of established risk factors. This study investigated whether excess weight in childhood was associated with CHD in adulthood among a very large cohort of persons born in Denmark in 1930 through 1972. They underwent mandatory annual health examination at public or private schools in Copenhagen. Each child was examined by school doctors or nurses and was assigned a health card bearing childs name, date of birth, birth weight reported by parents. 10,235 men and 4,318 women, for whom childhood BMI data were available, received a diagnosis of CHD or died of CHD as adults. The risk of CHD event, a non fatal event, and a fatal event among adults was positively associated with BMI at 7-13 years of age for boys and 10 to 13 years of ag e as girls. The associations were linear for each age and risk increased across the entire BMI distribution. Childhood Obesity 1930 1972 Risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance and vascular abnormalities were present in overweight children. CHD is likely to be increased in overweight children when they become adults as a result of established risk factors. This study investigated whether excess weight in childhood was associated with CHD in adulthood among a very large cohort of persons born in Denmark in 1930 through 1972. They underwent mandatory annual health examination at public or private schools in Copenhagen. Each child was examined by school doctors or nurses and was assigned a health card bearing childs name, date of birth, birth weight reported by parents. 10,235 men and 4,318 women, for whom childhood BMI data were available, received a diagnosis of CHD or died of CHD as adults. The risk of CHD event, a non fatal event, and a fatal event among adults was positively associated with BMI at 7-13 years of age for boys and 10 to 13 years of ag e as girls. The associations were linear for each age and risk increased across the entire BMI distribution. Childhood Obesity and Economic Growth 1930-1983 Childhood obesity was related to the economic growth during the 50 years of economic growth in the industrialized world especially in Denmark. Annual measurements of height and weight were available for all children born between 1930 and 1983 attending primary schools in Copenhagen Municipality. 165,389 boys and 163,609 girls from the age of 7 through 13 years were included in this study. After computerization SBMI (kg/m2) were calculated and the prevalence of overweight and obesity according to international age and gender–specific criteria. Economics growth was indicated by the Gross National Product and the overall consumption per capita, adjusted for inflation. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among Danish children rose in phases, which were not paralleled by trends in economic growth. The microeconomics growth indicators seem inappropriate as proxies for the environmental exposures that have elicited the obesity epidemic. Childhood obesity and television viewing Children spend a substantial portion of their lives watching television (TV). Investigators have hypothesized that TV viewing causes obesity by one or more than three mechanisms: Displacement of physical activity. Increased calorie consumption while watching or caused by the effects of advertising. Reduced resting metabolism. The relationship between TV viewing and obesity has been examined in a relatively large number of cross sectional epidemiological but few longitudinal studies. Many of them have found relatively weak, positive association or mixed results. Many experimental studies have found that reducing TV viewing may help to reduce the risk of obesity. One school based experimental study was designed specifically to test directly the casual relationship between TV viewing behaviors and body fatness. The results of this randomized controlled trial provide evidence that TV viewing is a cause of increased body fatness and that reducing the TV viewing is a promising strategy for preventing childhood obesity (Robinson; 2001). The objective of another study (Utter J et al, 2006), was to explore how time spent watching television (TV) is associated with the dietary behavior of New Zealand children and young adolescents. Total number of participants was 3275 children aged 5-17 years. The findings suggest that longer duration of TV watching (thus more frequent exposure to advertising) influences the frequency of consumption of soft drinks, some sweets and snacks and some fast foods among children and young adolescents. Efforts to control the time spent watching TV may result in better dietary habits and weight control for children and adolescents. Childhood Obesity US- A decade of progress, 1990-1999 Current data suggest that 20% of US children are overweight .An analysis of the secular trends suggest that 20% of US children are overweight, and a clear up ward trend in body weight in children of 0.2 Kg between 1973 and 1994. In addition, childhood obesity is more prevalent among minority sub groups such as African Americans. Obesity that begins early in life persists into adulthood and increases the risk of obesity related conditions later in life. There has been tremendous increase in the number of studies examining the etiology and health effects of obesity in children (Goran MI, 1990-1999).1980 (boys 0.2% girls 0.5%) and 1997 (boys 1.2%, girls 2.0%). Ten years trends of childhood obesity in Israel 1990-2000 Cross sectional data was collected from 13284 second and fifth class school; children between 1990-2000. Prevalence of obesity was determined using Israeli and US reference values. BMI values at 95th percentile increased overtime in all ages and sex categories. Between 1990 and 2000, 95th centile values were increased by 12.7%and 11.8% among second grade boys and girls respectively. Among fifth graders in 2000, 10.7% of boys and 11.1% of girls exceeded the 1990 BMI reference values. The proportion of obese children increased over time using both Israeli and US reference values (Huerta Michael et al, 2008). Netherlands. Overweight, Obesity in 2003: V.1980-97. Data on 90,071 children, aged 4-16 years were routinely collected by 11 Community Heath Services during 2002-2004. International cut -off points for BMI to determine overweight and obesity. On average, 14.5% of boys and 17.5% of the girls were overweight (including obesity), which is a substantial increase since 1980 (boys 3.9% and girls 6.9%) and 1997 (boys 9.7% and girls 13%). Similarly 2.6% of the boys and 3.3% 0f the girls aged 4-16 years were obese, which is much higher than in 1980 (boys 0.2% and girls 0.5%) and 1997 (boys 1.2% and girls 2.0%), (KatjaVan Den Husk, 2007). Obesity trends in US. 2003-2006 Height and weight measurements were obtained from 8164 children and adolescents as apart of the 2003-2004 and 2005-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Because no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of high BMI for age were found between the estimates for 2003-2004 and 2005-2006, data for four years were combined to provide more stable estimates for the most recent time period. Over all, in 2003-2006, 11.3% of children and adolescents aged 2 through years were at or above 97th percentile of the 2000 BMI- for- age growth charts, 16.3% were at or above 95th percentile. Prevalence estimates vary by age and by racial/ethnic group. Analysis of the trends in high BMI for age showed no statistically significant trend over the four time periods (1999-2000, 2001-2002, 2003-2004, and 2005-2006) for either boys or girls (Cynthia l.Ogden et al, 2008). 11-March 2005. Public Release Date: Consensus on Childhood Obesity, Recommends classification as disease A common statement on childhood obesity was published to day in the journal of Chemical Endocrinology and Metabolism (one of the journals of Endocrine Society). The consensus statement reflects the conclusions from an international summit held in Israel last year (2004) and includes a controversial recommendation to classify obesity as a disease. This decision was based upon the available research on the diagnosis, prevalence, causes (including endocrine disorders), risks, prevention and treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatric obesity is now recognized as a major health problem all over the world. Researcher have found that children who are obese have a higher risks adult obesity, which is strongly associated with many serious medical complications that impair quality of life and lead to additional increased risks. The statement also noted the prevalence of overweight/obesity among children 6-11 years (in the US) doubled between the years 1980-2000. By classifying obesity as legiti mate disease, public funding and in user sreimbursement for obesity treatment becomes legalized (consensus on childhood obesity, 2005). Serious health risks will likely to begin to appear in obese children and adolescents as they grow older. These may include diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, hyperandrogenism, heart disease, hypertension, respiratory factors, and sleep disorders. Obese children are also at greater risk of anxiety and depression. It also recommended a number of measures that can be implemented by parents; schools, health providers and government and regulatory agencies to help to prevent the onset of childhood obesity Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism Adipocytokines and Obesity The mechanism underlying obesity was further explained by the discovery of adipocytokines, the role of peripheral thyroid hormones (T4, T3), thyroid stimulating hormone and insulin the regulation of energy metabolism. The levels of some of the adipocytokines were shown to be related to visceral obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease. Plasma levels of all the adipocytokines increase with the obesity except adiponectin (Yuji Matsuzawa et al, 2003). Recent studies point out to the adipose tissue as a highly active organ secreting a range of hormones, Leptin, Adiponectin, and Resistin. They are considered to take part in the regulation of energy metabolism. Leptin, Adiponectin and Resistin are produced by the adipose tissue. Leptin and Adiponectin are insulin sensitizing while Resistin increase the insulin resistance. Leptin The notion that genetic abnormalities contribute to obesity gained important support with the identification of the Ob gene and its protein product in 1994 (Zhangy et al, 1996). The Ob gene termed Leptin from the Greek Leptos, meaning thin, is produced in adipose tissue and is thought to act as an afferent satiety signal in a feed back loop that affects the appetite and satiety centre in the hypothalamus of brain. The ultimate effect of this loop is to regulate body-fat mass. In human, as noted by Considine et al, 1996; caloric restriction reduces leptin concentrations and Ob mRNA levels in adipose tissue, and refeeding increases these levels. One fundamental mechanism of obesity is insensitivity to the action of Leptin, presumably in the hypothalamus. The Leptins primary physiological function is to provide a signal to suppress body fat by decreasing food intake or increasing energy expenditure. Serum leptin concentrations change more during weight loss than during weight gain (Rose nbaum M et al, 1997). Adiponectin Adiponectin or Adipo Q, an adipocyte specific secreted protein with roles in glucose and lipid homeostasis (Insulin stimulates the secretion of adiponectin). Circulating adiponectin concentrations are high 500-30,000 Â µg/l (5-30mg/ml) accounting for 0.01% of total plasma proteins (Berget et al, 2002). Adiponectin was discovered in the mid 1990s by four different groups of researchers (Hu E et al, 1996). Adiponectin has various biological functions including insulin sensitizing (Hotta K et al, 2000), antiatherogenic (Yamauchi T et al, 2003), anti-inflammatory (Ouchi N et al, 2003), antiangiogenic and anti tumor functions (Brakenhielm E et al, 2004). Adiponectin acts through Adiponectin receptors, Adipo R1 and Adipo R2. Adipo R1 is mostly expressed in skeletal muscles and Adipo R2 is abundant in liver. These receptors are also expressed by the pancreatic ß cells (Kharroubi et al, 2003), macrophages and atherosclerotic lesions (Chinetti et al, 2004) as well as in brain (Yamauchi et al, 2003). Circulating Adiponectin levels display diurnal variation with a nocturnal decline and maximum levels in the late morning (Gavrila et al, 2003). Adiponectin is also found in breast milk, which in turn is implicated in childhood obesity prevention (Savino et al, 2008). Among the various adipocytokines, adiponectin, which is an abundant circulating protein (247 amino acids) synthesized purely in adipose tissue, appears to play a very important role in carbohydrates, lipid metabolism and vascular biology. Adiponectin appears to be a major modulator of insulin action and its levels are reduced in type 2 diabetes mellitus, which could contribute to peripheral insulin resistance in this condition. It has significant insulin sensitizing as well as anti inflammatory properties that include suppression of macrophage phagocytosis and TNF-a secretion and blockage of monocytes adhesion to endothelial cells in vitro. Although further investigations are required, Adiponectin administration, as well as regulation of the pathway controlling its production, represents a promising target for managing obesity, hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and vascular inflammation (Manju Chandran et al, 2003). Resistin Human resistin is 108 amino acids prepeptide and is cleaved before its secretion from the Adipose tissue. Resistin circulates in the blood as dimeric protein consisting of 92 amino acids polypeptides that are linked by a disulfide bridge. Holcomb et al, 2000 first described the gene family and its tissue specific distribution. Originally described as lung specific, is also produced by the adipose tissue and peripheral blood monocytes. It is also present in dividing epithelia of the intestine. Resistin increase blood glucose and insulin concentration in the mice and impairs hypoglycemic response to insulin infusion. In addition, anti resistin antibodies decrease blood glucose and insulin sensitivity in obese mice (Ukkalo O, 2002). The physiological role of resistin in human remains controversial. There more resistin protein in obese than lean individuals, with a significant positive correlation between resistin and BMI. BMI is a significant predictor of insulin resistance, but resisti n adjusted for BMI is not. These data demonstrate that resistin protein is present in human adipose tissue and blood and that there is significantly more resistin in serum of obese individuals. Serum resistin is not a significant predictor of insulin resistance in human (Youn et al, 2003, Rear R and Donnelly R, 2004). Tumor Necrosis Factor-a It will be unreasonable not to mention the Tumor Necrosis Factor a and its role in vascular inflammation related to atherosclerosis especially in obesity. It is a cytokine involved in systemic inflammation and is a member of a group of cytokines that stimulate the acute phase reaction. The primary role of TNF is in the regulation of immune cells. TNF is able to induce apoptotic cell death, to induce inflammation and to inhibit tumourgenesis and viral replication. Dysregulation and, in particular, over production of TNF have been implicated in a variety of human diseases, as well as cancer (Locksley et al, 2001). The theory of antitumoural response of the immune system in vivo was recognized by the physician William B in 1968. Dr A Granger reported a cytotoxic factor produced by lymphocytes and named it Lymphotoxin (Kalli WB and Granger GA, 1968). Dr L Loyal old, in 1975 reported another cytotoxic factor produced by macrophages and named it Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) (Cars well et al, 1975). Interleukin – 6 (IL-6) Chronic inflammation is linked to endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003 and Fernandez-Real JM, Ricart W, 2005). Plasma concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL) 18, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, and of several other inflammatory markers are increased in patients with ischemic heart disease (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003, Ridker PM et al, 2002, Engstrom G et al, 2004, Ridker PM et al, 1997, Pradham AD et al, 2002). Circulating cytokines also are elevated in type 2 diabetes, obesity, and insulin resistance syndrome and play a central role in the pathogenesis of these disorders (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003). IL-6 is a mediator of the inflammatory response, and it is linked to dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, and risk of myocardial infarction (Fernandez-Real JM and Ricart W, 2003, Ridker PM et al, 2000, Esteve E et al, 2005, Yudkin JS et al, 2000). IL-6 is secreted by a variety of different cell types, including lymphoid and endothelial cells, fibroblasts, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue. Circulating IL-6 levels correlate with obesity and insulin resistance and may predict the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (Yudkin JS et al, 2000, Pradhan AD et al, 2001, Akira S et al, 1993, Mohamed-Ali V et al, 1997). Endothelial dysfunction is regarded as a causal factor in the development of atherosclerosis (Hansson GK, 2005). It is one of the earliest abnormalities that can be detected in people at risk for cardiovascular events, and it is linked to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (Steinberg HO and Baron AD, 2002, Natali A et al, 2006). Cytokines have an important role in the endothelial injury induced by inflammation. The vascular endothelium is involved in the inflammatory response to atherosclerosis (Hansson GK, 2005, Steinberg HO and Baron AD, 2002, Natali A et al, 2006, Widlansky ME et al, 2003), and changes in endothelium function could underlie the association between cardiovascular disease and inflammation. Obesity Related Insulin Resistance: Definition and Pathogenesis Insulin resistance is a state in which a given amount of insulin produces a subnormal biological response (Kahn CR, 1978). In particular, it is characterized by a decrease in the ability of insulin to stimulate the use of glucose by muscles and adipose tissue and to suppress hepatic glucose production and output (Matthaei et al, 2000). Furthermore, it accounts a resistance to insulin action on protein and lipid metabolism and on vascular endothelial function and genes expression (Bajaj M and Defronzo RA, 2003). Several defects in the insulin signaling cascade have been implicated in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance, Insulin resistance is believed to have both genetic and environmental factors implicated in its etiology (Matthaei et al, 2000 and Liu et al, 2004). The genetic component seems to be polygenic in nature, and several genes have been suggested as potential candidates (Matthaei et al, 2000). However, several other factors can influence insulin sensitivity, such as obesity, ethnicity, gender, perinatal factors, puberty, sedentary lifestyle and diet (Liu et al, 2004). The Role of Fatty Acids and Adipocytokines Obesity represents the major risk factor for the development of insulin resistance in children and adolescents (Caprio S, 2002), and insulin resistance/hyperinsulinemia is believed to be an important link between obesity and the associated metabolic abnormalities and cardiovascular risk (Weiss R and Kaufman FR, 2008). Approximately, 55% of the variance in insulin sensitivity in children can be explained by total adiposity, after adjusting for other confounders, such as age, gender, ethnicity and pubertal stage (Caprio S, 2002). Obese children have hyperinsulinemia and peripheral insulin resistance with an ~40% lower insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism than non-obese children (Caprio S et al, 19996). Adipose tissue seems to play a key role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance through several released metabolites, hormones and adipocytokines that can affect different steps in insulin action (Matsuzawa Y, 2005) (Fig. 1). Adipocytes produce non-esterified fatty acids, which inhibit carbohydrate metabolism via substrate competition and impaired intracellular insulin signaling (Matsuzawa Y, 2005, Griffin ME et al 1999 and Randle PJ, 1998). In children, as in adults, several adipocytokines have been related to adiposity indexes as well as to insulin resistance. Adiponectin is one of the most common cytokines produced by adipose tissue, with an important insulin sensitizing effect associated with anti-atherogenetic properties (Despres JP, 2006 and Gil-Campos M et al, 2004). Whereas obesity is generally associated with an increased release of metabolites by adipose tissue, levels of Adiponectin are inversely related to adiposity (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Therefore, reduced levels of this adipocytokine have been implicated in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Decreased levels of Adiponectin have been detected across tertiles of insulin resistance in children and adolescents (Weiss R et al, 2004), where it is a good predictor of insulin sensitivity, independently of adiposity (Lee S et al, 2006). Adipose tissue also produces tumour necrosis factor-a, an inflammatory factor, which can alter insulin action at different levels in the intracellular pathway (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is ano ther inflammatory cytokine released by adipose tissue and its levels are increased in obesity (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). IL-6 stimulates the hepatic production of C-reactive protein and this can explain the state of inflammation associated with obesity, and could mediate, at least partially, obesity-related insulin resistance (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). Data based mainly on animal studies also suggest that increased levels of resistin, another molecule produced by adipose tissue, could impair insulin sensitivity (Matsuzawa Y, 2005). The close relationship between Leptin levels and insulin resistance in children has also been suggested by the data (Chu NF et al, 2000). Serum levels of retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) correlate with insulin resistance in subjects with obesity as well as in those with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or type 2 diabetes mellitus, therefore suggesting that it could be useful in assessing insulin resistance and the associated risk for complications (Graham TE et al, 2006). Serum RBP4 is independently related to obesity as well as to components of the metabolic syndrome in normal weight and overweight children (Aeberli I et al, 2007). Diet composition in obese children might be an additional factor promoting and/or worsening insulin resistance. Animal and human studies suggest that a high energy intake as well as a diet rich in fat and carbohydrates and low in fiber could increase the risk of developing insulin resistance (Canete R et al, 2007). The Role of Fat Distribution An altered partitioning of fat between subcutaneous and visceral or ectopic sites has been associated with insulin resistance (Weiss R and Kaufman FR, 2008). Visceral fat has a better correlation with insulin sensitivity than subcutaneous or total body fat (Caprio S et al, 1995), in both obese adults and children. Visceral fat has higher lipolytic activity compared with subcutaneous fat, therefore a greater amount of free fatty acids and glycerol gain entry or carried out to the liver (Matthaei et al, 2000). Visceral fat in girls is directly correlated to the glucose-stimulated insulin levels and inversely correlated with insulin sensitivity and the rate of glucose uptake. No correlation was found between abdominal subcutaneous fat (Caprio S et al, 1995). Ectopic deposition of fat in the liver or muscle can also be responsible for insulin resistance in obese subjects, as the accumulation of fat in these sites impairs insulin signaling, with a reduced glucose uptake in the muscle and a decreased insulin-mediated suppression of hepatic glucose production (Weiss R and Kaufman FR, 2008). Intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) accumulation has been shown as a factor related to decreased insulin sensitivity (Jacob S et al, 1999 and Thamer C et al, 2003). Obese insulin sensitive children and adolescents present lower levels of visceral fat and IMCL when compared with obese insulin resistant children (Weiss R et al, 2005). Accumulation of fat in the liver has also been associated with insulin resistance, independently of adiposity (Kelley DE et al, 2003). It has also been suggested that deposits of fat around blood vessels can produce several cytokines and therefore contribute to the development of insulin resistance, through a so-called vasocrine effect (Yudkin JS et al, 2005). Insulin Resistance and Associated Complications Insulin resistance in obesity is strictly related to the development of hypertension (Marcovecchio ML et al, 2006 and Cruz ML et al, 2002), dyslipidemia (Howard BV and Howard WJ, 1994), impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) (Sinha R et al, 2002), hepatic steatosis (DAdamo E et al, 2008), as well as to the combination of these factors, also known as metabolic syndrome (Eckel RH et al, 2005). Furthermore, insulin resistance is associated with systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, early atherosclerosis and disordered fibrinolysis (Dan Dona P et al, 2002). It is alarming that these metabolic and cardiovascular complications are already found in obese children and adolescents (Dietz WH, 2004). The presence of these alterations in prepubertal children is then particularly worrying, as insulin resistance and related complications might be further exacerbated by the influence of puberty, due to the physiological decrease in insulin sensitivity associated with normal pubertal development (Caprio S et al, 1989). Insulin resistance in childhood can track in adult life (Sinaiko AR et al, 2006). Insulin resistance at the age of 13 years predicts insulin resistance at age 19 years, independently of BMI, and is also associated with cardiovascular risk in adulthood (Sinaiko AR et al, 2006). The fundamental role of insulin resistance in human disease was already recognized in 1988 by Reaven (Reaven GM, 1988) who emphasized its role in the development of a grouping of metabolic abnormalities, which he defined as syndrome X. Later studies strengthened the concept of insulin resistance as a key component of the metabolic syndrome, a cluster of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperinsulinemia, associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease (Eckel RH et al, 2005). Insulin resistance represents a serious and common complication of obesity during childhood and adolescence. A timely diagnosis and an appropriated prevention and treatment of obesity and insulin resistance are required in order to reduce the